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Species Review

Artemisia rigida, scabland sagebrush

Written
October, 2003
Contributors
Jack McWilliams - 1st Author

McWilliams, Jack. 2003. Artemisia rigida, scabland sagebrush. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://research.fs.usda.gov/feis/species-reviews/artrig

DOI
10.2737/feis-species-review-artrig

AbbreviationCommon NameScientific NameClassificationStatus
Plants
ARTRIGscabland sagebrushArtemisia rigidaLife Form: Plants/Shrub
Kingdom: Plantae
Class: Dicot
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Artemisia		Fed. Protected: No
Nativity: Native
Invasiveness: Noninvasive

A photo of a somewhat dense, low-growing shrub with blue-green leaves growing on gravelly bare ground with a few very small forbs growing around it.
A photo of widely spaced, somewhat low shrubs growing with dried annual grasses dominating a graminoid layer. In the background, bunchgrasses dominate, and the cliff edges of a plateau rise behind.
A photo of a somewhat spreading, woody sagebrush with gray-green, deeply divided leaves. It grows in rocky soils with visible bedrock. Two people are visible in the background taking photos from a lookout point of the dramatic canyon behind.
A photo of a shrub with upright, gray-green leaves and very small, yellow flowers. Dried grasses grow around and several conifers grow behind.

A photo of a somewhat dense, low-growing shrub with blue-green leaves growing on gravelly bare ground with a few very small forbs growing around it.
Photo Credit
Photo by Dave Powell, USDA Forest Service, www.forestryimages.org.

Scabland sagebrush.

Taxonomy

The scientific name of scabland sagebrush is Artemisia rigida (Nutt.) Gray (Asteraceae) [17,18,30,32,35].

Synonyms

  • Seraphidium rigidum (Nutt.) Weber [35]

Other Common Names

stiff sagebrush

General Distribution

Scabland sagebrush occurs in Washington, northeastern Oregon [8,21,37,59], and west-central Idaho [21,37,56,59]. Reports of scabland sagebrush occurring in western Montana are apparently the results of misidentification [8,59].

States and Provinces

  • United States: ID OR WA

Site Characteristics

A photo of widely spaced, somewhat low shrubs growing with dried annual grasses dominating a graminoid layer. In the background, bunchgrasses dominate, and the cliff edges of a plateau rise behind.
Photo Credit
Photo by Cody Hinchliff, iNaturalist.org, some rights reserved.

Scabland sagebrush growing along the Monument Coulee Trail in Grant County, Washington (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Scabland sagebrush occurs on harsh, unproductive sites [34]. It is restricted to shallow, stony sites over basaltic bedrock [21,22] with severe moisture saturation during winter and severe frost heaving [28,31]. Where subsoils exist they are strongly developed of clay and permeability is extremely low [31]. In a scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass habitat type in the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest in Washington and Idaho, average depth of the soil to bedrock is 4 to 9 inches (10-23 cm) [33].

Miller and Eddleman [40] describe annual precipitation at scabland sagebrush sites as 7.9 to 15.7 inches (200-400 mm). Precipitation on a habitat type of scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass in southern Idaho ranges from 12 to 20 inches (305-508 mm) [31].

Several elevational ranges for scabland sagebrush have been delineated:

  • Miller and Eddleman [40] describe the elevational range of scabland sagebrush, in general, as 755 to 4,265 feet (230-1,300 m).
  • Beetle [8] gives the elevational range of scabland sagebrush on rocky scablands as between 3,000 to 5,000 feet (914-1,424 m).
  • Hall [27] describes the elevational range of scabland sagebrush in the Blue Mountains of Eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington as 4,000 to 5,600 feet (1,219-1,707 m).
  • In the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, scabland sagebrush sites occur from 3,300 to 5,500 feet (1,006-1,676 m) with a mean altitude of 4,600 feet (1,400 m) [33].
  • In Oregon, Winward [61] describes the elevational range of scabland sagebrush as 3,000 to 7,000 feet (914-2,134 m).

Plant Communities

Bryce and Omernik [13] use scabland sagebrush and Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) as natural vegetation to define the Channeled Scablands [12] subregion of the Columbia Plateau in Oregon and Washington.

The most common associate of scabland sagebrush in Oregon is Sandberg bluegrass. Biscuitroots (Lomatium spp.) are also common. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and other annual grasses and forbs become major increasers on disturbed sites of scabland sagebrush [61]. Also in Oregon, in the Blue Mountains, Hall [29] describes the most common associates of scabland sagebrush in a western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis ssp. occidentalis)/scabland sagebrush/bluegrass (Poa spp.) plant community in good range condition as Sandberg bluegrass, onespike oatgrass (Danthonia unispicata), and often bighead clover (Trifolium macrocephalum). He states cheatgrass and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium) are absent from range sites in poor condition because of site limitations. Also in the Blue Mountains of Oregon, Hall [28] lists Sandberg bluegrass, wheatgrass (Triticeae), dwarf squirreltail (Elymus elymoides ssp. hordeoides), and bighead clover as vegetation dominants in scabland sagebrush stands.

In Idaho Hironaka and others [31] list a habitat type of scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass as occurring on shallow, basalt-derived soils. Other species associated with this habitat type include bottlebrush squirreltail (E. elymoides), crested wheatgrass (A. cristatum), tapertip onion (Allium acuminatum), bulbous woodland-star (Lithophragma glabrum), Bailey's buckwheat (Eriogonum baileyi), and low-growing biscuitroots. Cheatgrass and/or medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) occur sparsely in all stands, even when fully protected from all grazing.

Clary and others [16] describe a habitat type of scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass in the Pole Creek drainage in Oregon that is restricted to rocky, basalt sites with shallow soil. Agee [1] describes a scabland plant series in the Columbia Basin of scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass.

A plant association of scabland sagebrush/bluegrass (Poa spp.) in eastern Washington and northern Idaho is described as an edaphic climax community along the brows of hills on thin, stony soils [46]. Similarly, Culver [19] describes an edaphic climax plant association of scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass in Oregon. In Washington Daubenmire [21] delineates a scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass habitat type where the soil is always thin and stony with balsaltic bedrock immediately below.

Other classification systems describing plant communities in which scabland sagebrush is a dominant species are listed below:

  • Wallowa-Whitman National Forest (Oregon) [33]
  • Meeks Table Research Natural Area (Washington) [53]
  • Canyon grasslands and associated shrublands of west-central Idaho and adjacent areas [55]

Botanical Description

A photo of a somewhat spreading, woody sagebrush with gray-green, deeply divided leaves. It grows in rocky soils with visible bedrock. Two people are visible in the background taking photos from a lookout point of the dramatic canyon behind.
Photo Credit
Photo by EK, iNaturalist.org, some rights reserved.

Scabland sagebrush growing in Grant County, Washington (CC BY-NC 4.0).

The following description of scabland sagebrush provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g. [17,18,30,32]).

Scabland sagebrush is a native, deciduous shrub. It is low and spreading with a conspicuously woody base. The base is often heaved from the soil by frost action. The trunk is very irregular, spreading above the base in a dense cluster of short, rigid, and rather brittle branches up to 16 inches (40 cm) in length. Flowering stems elongate up to 1 foot (30 cm). Vegetative leaves are 0.4 to 1.6 inches (1-4 cm) long, with a narrow base and 3 conspicuous, narrowly linear lobes forming a trident. The fruit is a ribbed achene 1.5 mm long [8,38,59].

Most of the roots of scabland sagebrush are concentrated in rock fractures, and 80% of the roots of scabland sagebrush occur in the first 2 to 9 inches (5-23 cm) of soil [33].

Raunkiaer Life Form

  • Phanerophyte [45]

Seasonal Development

Beetle [8] describes the phenology of scabland sagebrush as new growth beginning in June, young seedheads developing late July to August, flowering in October, and seed ripening in October. Blaisdell and others [11] and McArthur and others [38] state seed ripens in scabland sagebrush in November.

Regeneration Processes

A photo of a shrub with upright, gray-green leaves and very small, yellow flowers. Dried grasses grow around and several conifers grow behind.
Photo Credit
Photo by Elliot Robison, iNaturalist.org, some rights reserved.

Flowering scabland sagebrush (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Very little information about regeneration processes of scabland sagebrush is available in the literature. Where information about sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) in general is applicable, it is included.

Breeding System

Pendleton and others [44] describe sagebrush as monoecious.

Pollination

Scabland sagebrush is wind pollinated [37].

Seed Production

All sagebrushes produce achenes "in profusion" [8]. No specific information about seed production of scabland sagebrush is available.

Seed Dispersal

Sagebrush seed in general has very poor dispersal. It lacks appendages for airborne transport by wind or attachment to animals. Most seed falls beneath the plant and the plant community moves 3 feet (0.9 m) or less per generation [50]. There are no specific references to dispersal of scabland sagebrush seeds in the literature.

Seed Banking

No information on seed banking of scabland sagebrush is available. Mueggler [42] found that after fire, big sagebrush (A. tridentata) seedlings arose from seed stored in the soil. Beetle [8] states seed of mountain silver sagebrush (A. cana ssp. viscidula) stored for 4 years under ordinary room temperatures was still viable.

Germination

In a discussion of sagebrush seed in general, Beetle [8] states sagebrush seed can germinate in 48 hours. Seed exposed to light resulted in germination percentages 3 times higher than sagebrush seed germinated in the dark. There is no evidence that sagebrush seed that survives the summer germinates in the fall under field conditions. Under field conditions, fluctuating extremes of temperatures (which are the rule in early spring) may be of less importance than the duration of a high noon temperature.

Seedling Establishment and Growth

Germinated sagebrush seeds can have fully exposed cotyledons within 4 days [8]. Shade from the canopy of mature sagebrush plants is a strong factor in seedling survival. Seedlings in direct sun have higher mortality.

Survival of sagebrush seedlings is directly related to the litter layer. With less litter there is a better likelihood of sagebrush seedlings establishing.

Vegetative Regeneration

Scabland sagebrush is not known to rootsprout or to layer [11,38,59].

Successional Status

Scabland sagebrush is part of the climax vegetation on sites where it occurs. Johnson [34] describes scabland sagebrush as "clearly" the climax vegetation of very harsh, unproductive range sites.

On scabland sites on the Bridge Creek Wildlife Management Area in northeastern Oregon, scabland sagebrush is part of a climax plant community [2]. In eastern Washington and northern Idaho scabland sagebrush is described as part of an edaphic climax community along the brows of hills on thin, stony soils [46]. Culver [19] also describes an edaphic climax vegetation association in Oregon where scabland sagebrush is the only shrub present.

Immediate Fire Effects

Fire rarely carries through scabland sagebrush stands, but when it does, scabland sagebrush is "killed outright" [23].

Scabland sagebrush is susceptible to fire during mid-summer to late fall and can be controlled by prescribed fire [33]. No information on susceptibility of scabland sagebrush in other seasons is available.

Postfire Regeneration Strategy

  • Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources) [52]

Fire Adaptations

Scabland sagebrush is killed by fire [23].

Plant Response to Fire

Scabland sagebrush is a nonsprouter that recolonizes burned areas slowly [1].

Scabland sagebrush increases with protection from fire, but becomes decadent over time [1]. Unpublished data (Tisdale 1980), discussed in Tisdale and Hironaka [56], indicate scabland sagebrush does not sprout after clipping to a height of 0.8 to 1.2 inches (2-3 cm).

Fire Regimes

There is no specific information in the literature concerning fire regimes for scabland sagebrush. Researchers agree the vegetation on scabland sagebrush sites is so depauperate, it won't support fire. Agee [1] describes a scabland sagebrush/Sandberg's bluegrass plant series in the Columbia River Basin and concludes it has such low biomass productivity (125-335 kg/ha [33]) that it would not carry fire and probably "rarely" burned. Bunting and others [14] classify scabland sagebrush as a "dwarf" sagebrush and state there is seldom sufficient fuel to carry a fire. Tisdale and Hironaka [56] report the sparse herbaceous understory of scabland sagebrush stands make them virtually immune to fire. Humphrey [47] states scabland sagebrush is small in stature and typically occurs on poorly drained sites with few grasses or other potentially flammable growth. These stands are often restricted in area and do not provide an opportunity for extensive burns.

Fire regimes for plant communities and ecosystems in which scabland sagebrush occurs are summarized below. For additional fire regime information, search FEIS for this species by entering the species name on the Advanced Search page and selecting “Fire Regime” as the publication type.

Community or EcosystemDominant SpeciesFire Return Interval Range (years)
sagebrush steppeArtemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata20-70 [43]
basin big sagebrushArtemisia tridentata var. tridentata12-43 [48]
mountain big sagebrushArtemisia tridentata var. vaseyana15-40 [5,15,41]
Wyoming big sagebrushArtemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis10-70 (40**) [58,62]
curlleaf mountain-mahogany*Cercocarpus ledifolius13-1,000 [7,49]
western juniperJuniperus occidentalis20-70
Rocky Mountain juniperJuniperus scopulorum< 35
pinyon-juniperPinus-Juniperus spp.< 35 [43]
Jeffrey pinePinus jeffreyi5-30
Pacific ponderosa pine*Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa1-47 [4]
mountain grasslandsPseudoroegneria spicata3-40 (10**) [3,4]
Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir*Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca25-100 [4,5,6]

*fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species summary

**mean

Fire Management Considerations

Because fuel is rarely sufficient to carry a fire, scabland sagebrush stands can frequently be used as natural fire breaks. Care must be taken in above average production years because scabland sagebrush stands may be able to carry a fire at that time [14].

Since scabland sagebrush is a preferred browse plant for livestock and wildlife, prescribed burning in scabland sagebrush communities cannot be widely recommended [14]. Johnson and Simon [33] state scabland sagebrush has a high value to wildlife and should not be eradicated.

Johnson and Simon [33] conclude the intershrub distances in scabland sagebrush stands coupled with discontinuous grass cover make fire a difficult tool to use.

Federal Status

None

Other Status

None

Importance to Wildlife and Livestock

Scabland sagebrush sites have low above ground annual plant production, 123 to 246 kg/ha [40]. However, because scabland sagebrush sites are commonly along exposed ridge sites where snowmelt occurs rapidly, these communities may supply the only available forage to big game animals in early spring months; consequently scabland sagebrush has a high value to wildlife [33]. Bunting and others [14] state scabland sagebrush is a preferred browse plant for both livestock and wildlife.

Daubenmire [21] states scabland sagebrush is preferred browse for elk and that domestic livestock also consume scabland sagebrush readily when grass forage is not plentiful. Daubenmire [23] notes the angularity of the basaltic blocks which comprise so much of the surface in scabland sagebrush stands makes footing uncomfortable for livestock during the rainy grazing season in Washington. Consequently, grass-dominated communities in the vegetation mosaic are utilized "rather completely" before scabland sagebrush bushes are browsed to "compact mats."

Western sage-grouse in Washington use scabland sage-brush as food [54]. Willis and others [60] state western sage-grouse in Oregon use scabland sagebrush; the authors don't delineate whether it is used for food, cover, or both.

Palatability and Nutritional Value

Both livestock and wildlife find scabland sagebrush palatable. Daubenmire [23] describes scabland sagebrush as "rather palatable" to livestock and Hall [28] states scabland sagebrush is highly palatable to big game and livestock. Seedheads of scabland sagebrush in August and September seem to be a prized forage. Hironaka and others [31] describe scabland sagebrush sites as heavily grazed, even in winter, when protein content of scabland sagebrush is "relatively low."

Cover Value

Bare ground and rock usually account for greater than 60% of the ground cover in scabland sagebrush stands, so hiding cover is typically sparse [40]. Dealy and others [24] state the low stature and wide dispersion of scabland sagebrush stands in southeastern Oregon do not provide cover of any consequence for animals larger than horned larks or ground squirrels. Lack of leaves in winter severely reduces the little cover scabland sagebrush offers. However, Tirhi [54] states western sage-grouse in Washington use scabland sagebrush for cover.

Value for Rehabilitation of Disturbed Sites

Scabland sagebrush appears to have a wider potential distribution than is indicated by its present natural range of occurrence, giving it potential use in reclamation of some harsh disturbed sites [39]. Seeds of scabland sagebrush number 550,000 per pound (1,210/g) [38].

Other Uses

Scabland sagebrush is an excellent indicator of scabland [28].

Other Management Considerations

Johnson [34] states establishment of introduced species in scabland sagebrush stands is very difficult. Because existing flora is generally superior to any introduced species, the best management strategy is to leave the native shrubs in place and to control present uses to maintain or improve the site's ecological condition. Hall [28] feels seeding of grasses is not possible in scabland sagebrush stands because shallow soils and waterlogging during winter are "inimical" to domestic grasses. He also states scabland sagebrush should not be sprayed because it is palatable to livestock and game animals and because it reduces wind speed over the soil surface.

Hironaka and others [31] discuss a habitat type of scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass in southern Idaho and conclude since this habitat type grows on extremely shallow, rocky soils, a scabland sagebrush control program would probably not be beneficial. Sandberg bluegrass is not able to take advantage of additional soil moisture that may result from removal of scabland sagebrush. Reseeding with introduced species of wheatgrass would not be economical because of the site's soils. Increase in forage yields by restoration practices may not justify treatment costs. Programs designed to manage scabland sagebrush sites should be designed to maintain an open stand of sagebrush with a scattered understory of native herbaceous species.

Range condition of scabland sagebrush sites in the Blue Mountains can be determined using a 9.6 ft2 (0.9 m2) plot to measure crown cover. Plants counted to determine range condition include scabland sagebrush, Sandberg bluegrass, wheatgrass, and bighead clover as counted plants is [28]:

Range conditionPercent crown coverNumber of plants
Good4012 or more
Fair20 to 396 to 11
Poor2 to 191 to 5
Very poornone of plants listed

A study by Dahl and Tisdale [20] concludes communities of scabland sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass are susceptible to invasion by medusahead.

Belknap and others [9] state scabland sagebrush stands have a "high" relative biological crust cover.

Table A1— Forest and range ecosystems, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) physiographic regions, Kuchler plant associations, Society for American Foresters (SAF) forest cover types, and Society for Rangeland Management (SRM) rangeland cover types in which this species occurs.

Forest and Range Ecosystems

  • FRES20 Douglas-fir
  • FRES21 Ponderosa pine
  • FRES29 Sagebrush
  • FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
  • FRES36 Mountain grasslands [26]

BLM Physiographic Regions

  • 5 Columbia Plateau
  • 8 Northern Rocky Mountains [10]

Kuchler Plant Associations

  • K011 Western ponderosa forest
  • K012 Douglas-fir forest
  • K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland
  • K024 Juniper steppe woodland
  • K038 Great Basin sagebrush
  • K050 Fescue-wheatgrass
  • K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass
  • K055 Sagebrush steppe [36]

SAF Cover Types

  • 210 Interior Douglas-fir
  • 220 Rocky Mountain juniper
  • 237 Interior ponderosa pine
  • 238 Western juniper
  • 239 Pinyon-juniper
  • 247 Jeffrey pine [51]

SRM Rangeland Cover Types

  • 104 Antelope bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
  • 105 Antelope bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
  • 106 Bluegrass scabland
  • 107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass
  • 109 Ponderosa pine shrubland
  • 110 Ponderosa pine-grassland
  • 302 Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass
  • 303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass
  • 304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
  • 309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass
  • 314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
  • 315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue
  • 317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
  • 318 Bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
  • 322 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany-bluebunch wheatgrass
  • 324 Threetip sagebrush-Idaho fescue
  • 401 Basin big sagebrush
  • 402 Mountain big sagebrush
  • 403 Wyoming big sagebrush
  • 404 Threetip sagebrush
  • 406 Low sagebrush
  • 407 Scabland sagebrush
  • 408 Other sagebrush types
  • 412 Juniper-pinyon woodland
  • 415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany [51]

1. Agee, James K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-320. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23656]

2. Anderson, E. William; Scherzinger, Richard J. 1975. Improving quality of winter forage for elk by cattle grazing. Journal of Range Management. 28(2): 120-125. [316]

3. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]

4. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]

5. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]

6. Arno, Stephen F.; Scott, Joe H.; Hartwell, Michael G. 1995. Age-class structure of old growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir stands and its relationship to fire history. Res. Pap. INT-RP-481. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 25 p. [25928]

7. Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. 1986. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 241-243. [350]

8. Beetle, A. A. 1960. A study of sagebrush: The section Tridentatae of Artemisia. Bulletin 368. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 83 p. [416]

9. Belnap, Jayne; Kaltenecker, Julie Hilty; Rosentreter, Roger; [and others]. 2001. Biological soil crusts: ecology and management. Technical Reference 1730-2. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, National Science and Technology Center, Information and Communications Group. 110 p. [40277]

10. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

11. Blaisdell, James P.; Murray, Robert B.; McArthur, E. Durant. 1982. Managing Intermountain rangelands--sagebrush-grass ranges. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-134. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 41 p. [467]

12. Bretz, J. Harlen. 1969. The Lake Missoula floods and the channeled scabland. Journal of Geology. 77: 505-543. [28889]

13. Bryce, Sandra A.; Omernik, James M. 1997. Section 1--Level IV ecoregions of the Columbia Plateau ecoregion of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. In: Clarke, Sharon E.; Bryce, Sandra A., eds. Hierarchical subdivisions of the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains ecoregions, Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-395. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 10-23. [28537]

14. Bunting, Stephen C.; Kilgore, Bruce M.; Bushey, Charles L. 1987. Guidelines for prescribed burning sagebrush-grass rangelands in the northern Great Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-231. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 33 p. [5281]

15. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]

16. Clary, Warren P.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Dudley, Jonathan G.; [and others]. 1996. Response of a depleted sagebrush steppe riparian system to grazing control and woody plantings. Res. Pap. INT-RP-492. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 32 p. [27300]

17. Cronquist, Arthur. 1955. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest: Part 5: Compositae. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 343 p. [716]

18. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; [and others]. 1994. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 5. Asterales. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 496 p. [28653]

19. Culver, Roger Norman. 1964. An ecological reconnaissance of the Artemisia steppe on the east central Owyhee uplands of Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 99 p. Thesis. [723]

20. Dahl, B. E.; Tisdale, E. W. 1975. Environmental factors related to medusahead distribution. Journal of Range Management. 28(6): 463-468. [728]

21. Daubenmire, R. 1970. Steppe vegetation of Washington. Technical Bulletin 62. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, College of Agriculture, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. 131 p. [733]

22. Daubenmire, R. 1982. The distribution of Artemisia rigida in Washington: a challenge to ecology and geology. Northwest Science. 56(3): 162-164. [747]

23. Daubenmire, Rexford. 1992. Palouse prairie. In: Coupland, R. T., ed. Natural grasslands: Introduction and western hemisphere. Ecosystems of the World 8A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B. V: 297-312. [23830]

24. Dealy, J. Edward; Leckenby, Donavin A.; Concannon, Diane M. 1981. Wildlife habitats on managed rangelands--the Great Basin of southeastern Oregon: plant communities and their importance to wildlife. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-120. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest and Range Experiment Station. 66 p. [786]

25. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

26. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

27. Hall, Fred C. 1968. The influences of variations in elevations. In: Proceedings, cooperative range management workshop; 1968 February 5-7; Pullman, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University: 30-34. [9493]

28. Hall, Frederick C. 1973. Plant communities of the Blue Mountains in eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. R6-Area Guide 3-1. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 82 p. [1059]

29. Hall, Frederick C. 1978. Western juniper in association with other tree species. In: Martin, Robert E.; Dealy, J. Edward; Caraher, David L., eds. Proceedings of the western juniper ecology and management workshop; 1977 January; Bend, OR. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-74. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 31-36. [1060]

30. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]

31. Hironaka, M.; Fosberg, M. A.; Winward, A. H. 1983. Sagebrush-grass habitat types of southern Idaho. Bulletin Number 35. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 44 p. [1152]

32. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

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