Calamagrostis montanensis, plains reedgrass
Hauser, A. Scott. 2006. Calamagrostis montanensis, plains reedgrass. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://research.fs.usda.gov/feis/species-reviews/calmon
| Abbreviation | Common Name | Scientific Name | Classification | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plants | ||||
| CALMON | plains reedgrass | Calamagrostis montlensis | Life Form: Plants/Graminoid Kingdom: Plantae Class: Monocot Order: Cyperales Family: Poaceae Genus: Calamagrostis | Fed. Protected: No Nativity: Native Invasiveness: Noninvasive |
Taxonomy
The currently accepted scientific name of plains reedgrass is Calamagrostis montanensis Scribn. ex Vasey (Poaceae) [33,34,35,43,52,53,55,91].
Plains reedgrass growing in sagebrush steppe in Beaverhead County, Montana (CC BY 4.0).
Synonyms
- None
Other Common Names
prairie reedgrass
General Distribution
Plains reedgrass has a contiguous distribution. It occurs from British Columbia east to Manitoba and south to Idaho and Colorado [14,33,34,35,43,47,52,53,55,91]. Grass Manual on the Web provides a distributional map of plains reedgrass.
States and Provinces
- United States: CO ID MN MT ND SD WY
- Canada: AB BC MB SK
Site Characteristics
Plains reedgrass occurs on dry open areas of grasslands [16,25,26,27,45], sagebrush benchlands [12,13,46], and foothills and mountains [24,76,98] of the northern Great Plains and Great Basin.
Plains reedgrass growing on a disturbed site in Wyoming sagebrush steppe in Sweet Grass County, Montana (CC BY 4.0).
Climate
Plains reedgrass can withstand rigorous climatic conditions [23]. In Montana, plains reedgrass grows in the continental semiarid climate zone [18,20,60]. In the northern Great Plains and the Canadian mixed-grass prairie, annual precipitation ranges from 12 to 18 inches (300-460 mm) [26,27]. Where plains reedgrass is dominant in the Badlands mixed grasslands of Montana and southwestern North Dakota, 75% of the precipitation falls during the growing season (April to September) [16,20]. Plains reedgrass can tolerate a temperate range of -48 °F (-44 °C) in the winter to 111 °F (44 °C) in the summer [32].
Elevation
The elevational ranges for plains reedgrass are presented in the table below:
| Region/State/Province | Elevation |
|---|---|
| Colorado | 7,876 to 9,724 feet [39,47] |
| Montana | 2,200 to 7,000 feet [18,20,24] |
| North Dakota | 2,000 to 2,600 feet [45] |
| Black Hills | 3,259 to 5,309 feet [85] |
| Northern Great Plains | 1,500 to 3,500 feet [27] |
| Southern Alberta | 1,800 to 3,800 feet [23,54] |
| Southwestern Saskatchewan | 1,800 to 3,800 feet [23,54] |
| Canadian mixed prairie | 800 to 4,000 feet [26] |
Soils
Plains reedgrass primarily grows on sandy to silty loam soil [20,23,83]. In southwestern Saskatchewan, plains reedgrass is equally distributed on fine sandy loam, light loam, loam, and clay loam soils [54]. Plains reedgrass is found in small quantities on saline soils in Saskatchewan [31] and Montana [69].
Soil characteristics of a site in Fremont County, Wyoming, where plains reedgrass occurs, are presented below [10]:
| pH | 7.54 |
| Nitrogen (%) | 0.6779 |
| Organic matter (%) | 10.6189 |
| Phosphorus (ppm) | 7.430 |
| Sulfur (ppm) | 97.70 |
| Magnesium (ppm) | 448.7 |
| Sodium (ppm) | 71.30 |
| Aluminum (ppm) | 0.799 |
| Copper (ppm) | 0.582 |
| Potassium (ppm) | 219.3 |
| Manganese (ppm) | 5.407 |
| Iron (ppm) | 1.477 |
| Calcium (ppm) | 7,158.0 |
| Selenium (ppm) | 0.03 |
Plant Communities
Plains reedgrass is listed as a dominant species in the following vegetation classifications:
United States
Montana:
- Beaverhead and Madison counties (needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass-Arizona wheatgrass (Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii-Elymus arizonicus) association) [24]
- Vigilante Experimental Range (Idaho fescue-thickspike wheatgrass (Festuca idahoensis-Elymus lanceolatus) association) [36]
- Eastern glaciated plains (common associates include western wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), and green needlegrass (Nassella viridula))
- Western glaciated plains (common associates include western wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, needle-and-thread grass, prairie Junegrass, and green needlegrass)
- Western sedimentary plains (common associates include western wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), prairie Junegrass, basin big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata), and green needlegrass)
- Foothills and mountains (common associates include western wheatgrass, basin wildrye (Elymus cinereus), thickspike wheatgrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, prairie sandreed, prairie Junegrass, basin big sagebrush, and green needlegrass) [76]
North Dakota:
- Little Missouri Badlands (associates not given in review) [17]
Regions:
- Great Basin (other dominant grasses listed in this review include thickspike wheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass) [62]
Canada
Alberta:
Mountain valley grasslands along the east slope of the Rocky Mountains, particularly Jasper National Park (prairie Junegrass association) [5,75,83,84]
Botanical Description
Panicle of plains reedgrass in Polk County, Minnesota (CC BY-NC 4.0).
This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g., [14,35,47,52,53]).
Plains reedgrass is a cool-season, single stalked [40], native perennial [14,47,52,53]. At maturity, it may reach a height of 20 inches (60 cm), but is generally from 6 to 14 inches (15-35 cm) tall [33,34,35,47,52,53]. Plains reedgrass leaves are stiff, erect, strongly rolled, mostly basal, 2 to 6 inches (5-15 cm) long [47] and up to 3 mm broad [33,34,35,47,52,53]. The panicle is scarcely interrupted, 1 to 4 inches (3-10 cm) long and 0.4 to 0.6 inch (1-1.5 cm) wide [47,52,53]. The spikelets of plains reedgrass are 1-flowered and 3 to 5.5 mm long [14,47]. Plains reedgrass fruits are awned caryopses [33,53].
Plains reedgrass is sod-forming [26,28], with slender rhizomes that are 0.3 to 0.5 mm in diameter and have short, thin leaves at each node [28]. The roots are approximately the same diameter as the rhizomes [28]. On the mixed-grass prairie of Saskatchewan, plains reedgrass roots reached a depth of 3 to 3.6 feet (1-1.1 m). Lateral roots were most abundant at depths below 10 inches (30 cm) and were 2 to 3 inches (5-8 cm) in length [28]. In a sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) community in North Park, Colorado, the majority of plains reedgrass roots were found at a depth of 1 to 1.5 feet (30-46 cm) [80].
Raunkiaer Life Form
- Geophyte [74]
Seasonal Development
Plains reedgrass begins growth in early April in the mixed-grass prairie of western North Dakota. A study conducted there from 1955 to 1962 found that on average, plains reedgrass attains its maximum leaf height (8.2 inches (20.9 cm)) on 20 July and maximum stalk height (10.1 inches (25.6 cm)) in late June. The table below describes the maximum leaf and stalk heights of plains reedgrass from 1955 to 1962 in western North Dakota [40]:
| Year | 1955 | 1956 | 1957 | 1958 | 1959 | 1960 | 1961 | 1962 |
| Maximum leaf height (cm) | 27 | 19 | 22 | 21 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 24 |
| Maximum stalk height (cm) | 30 | 19 | 32 | 21 | 13 | 29 | — | 35 |
On the Canadian mixed-grass prairie, plains reedgrass begins growth during the last half of April. Plains reedgrass spikelets appear around mid-June, flowering begins by the end of June, and by mid-July seeds reach maturity [26]. Hitchcock and others [53] and the Great Plains Flora Association [43] describe a similar flowering period for plains reedgrass in Idaho and the northern Great Plains.
Regeneration Processes
Plains reedgrass reproduces via rhizomes [14,47,52,53,66] and seeds [12,13,66,71].
Pollination
Plains reedgrass is wind pollinated [42,51,88].
Breeding System
Plains reedgrass is wind pollinated [42,51,88], so mating system is primarily outcrossing.
Seed Production
Information on plains reedgrass seed production is lacking. A fire study by Blaisdell [12] (see Plant Response to Fire) found that by postfire year 3, seed production of plains reedgrass exceeded prefire seed production.
Seed Dispersal
Plains reedgrass seeds are likely dispersed by wind. The seeds are awned [33,53], which may facilitate dispersal by animals.
Seed Banking
Most grasses have dormancy and thus may have a soil seed bank [9]. To date (2006), studies are lacking on longevity of plains reedgrass seeds.
Germination
No information is available on this topic.
Seedling Establishment and Growth
No information is available on this topic.
Vegetative Regeneration
Plains reedgrass is strongly rhizomatous [14,47,52,53]. To date (2006), studies are lacking on the growth rate of plains reedgrass rhizomes.
Successional Status
Plains reedgrass thrives on disturbed sites [12,13,24,83], such as burned areas [12,13,71], and occurs in all stages of succession. It is found on primary successional disturbed sites in Beaverhead and Madison counties of Montana [24]. Plains reedgrass occurs on secondary successional sites in the mixed-grass prairie of southwestern North Dakota [15,16]. In the northern Great Plains, plains reedgrass is a "preclimax" species in the shortbristle needle-and-thread-Montana wheatgrass (Hesperostipa curtiseta-Elymus albicans) association and a "climax" species in the blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis)-Montana wheatgrass association [26,27]. Plains reedgrass is also listed as a "climax" species in the Canadian mixed-grass prairie [25] and in the eastern glaciated plains, western glaciated plains, western sedimentary plains, and the foothills and mountains of Montana [76,98]. Stringer [83] hypothesizes that plains reedgrass-prairie Junegrass communities in Jasper National Park, Alberta, are secondary "climax" grasslands of a more productive vegetation type that have increased due to anthropogenic disturbances such as fire in the late 19th and 20th centuries.
Immediate Fire Effects
Plains reedgrass is likely top-killed by fire, with rhizomes protected by insulating soil [12,13,19,71,93].
Postfire Regeneration Strategy
- Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
- Initial off-site colonizer (off-site, initial community)
- Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources) [82]
Fire Adaptations
Plains reedgrass establishes after fire through seed and/or lateral spread by rhizomes [12,13,19,71,93]. Three years after a prescription fire in a southern Idaho sagebrush-grassland, plains reedgrass showed increased seed production compared to prefire rates. Blaisdell [12] hypothesizes that an increase in plains reedgrass seed production after fire facilitates seed dispersal onto open, bare sites such as burns.
Plant Response to Fire
Plains reedgrass recovers from fire by rhizomatous spread and/or establishing from seed [12,13,71]. Seed dispersal onto burned sites is likely effected by wind. While plains reedgrass may utilize a seed bank [9], as of this study (2006), there is a lack of information on seed tolerance to fire. The only fire study of plains reedgrass to date (2006) occurred in a basin big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass-plains reedgrass community in Clark County, southern Idaho. Blaisdell and others [12,13] found that production (lbs./acre) of plains reedgrass and thickspike wheatgrass, taken together, decreased during postfire year 1, but by postfire year 3 production increased until postfire year 12. The prescription fire also caused an increase in plains reedgrass and thickspike wheatgrass seed production by postfire year 3 [12]. Harniss and Murray [46] returned to the burn site in postfire year 30 and found plains reedgrass and thickspike wheatgrass production at or slightly below prefire levels.
The prescription fire in Clark County, Idaho, facilitated a significant (p<0.01 and p<0.05) increase in production of plains reedgrass and thickspike wheatgrass, taken together, over production on unburned range beginning in postfire year 3 until approximately postfire year 12 [12,13]. Growth of the 2 grasses was greatest in "heavy burn" areas (see definitions below). The 1-mile² burn area is on the United States Sheep Experiment Station range at an elevation of approximately 6,000 feet (2,000 m). The area is composed primarily of big basin sagebrush (40% cover) and perennial grasses (~ 35% cover of bluebunch wheatgrass, plains reedgrass, bluegrasses (Poa spp.), Idaho fescue, prairie Junegrass, and thickspike wheatgrass). The area was burned in August 1936 after the seed of most perennial grasses had been disseminated and the plants were dry or nearly dry. No grazing occurred during the 1936 growing season and for all of 1937. After 1937, the area was "conservatively" grazed by domestic sheep in spring and fall. Average rate of stocking was approximately 2 acres per domestic sheep month [12,13].
Within the 1-mile² burn area, 400 circular plots with an area of 100 feet² were established. Plains reedgrass/thickspike wheatgrass occurred in 83 plots. Vegetation samples were taken in 1937 (postfire year 1), 1939 (postfire year 3), and 1948 (postfire year 12). Immediately following the fire, plots were classified as heavy burn, moderate burn, light burn, and unburned. Heavy burning was described as a fire that consumed the trunk or main stem of basin big sagebrush. Moderate burning was a fire that consumed smaller branches and twigs, with larger branches of basin big sagebrush remaining. Light burning was a fire that consumed only the leaves of basin big sagebrush. To allow for rapid field identification, the researchers grouped plains reedgrass and thickspike wheatgrass together. The trends in production resulting from burning treatments are shown in the table below. Postfire production is expressed as a percentage of production on unburned range. Plains reedgrass/thickspike wheatgrass production was less than in unburned range in postfire year 1, but exceeded production on unburned range in postfire year 3 and postfire year 12 [12,13].
| Treatment | 1937 (postfire year 1) | 1939 (postfire year 3) | 1948 (postfire year 12) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Light burn | 93 | 169 | 154 |
| Moderate burn | 79 | 134 | 173 |
| Heavy burn | 81 | 180 | 191 |
In postfire year 12, air-dry herbage production of plains reedgrass/thickspike wheatgrass was measured on unburned, light burned, moderate burned, and heavy burned sites. Plains reedgrass/thickspike wheatgrass production was positively affected by increased fire severity [12,13]. The following table describes air-dry herbage production of plains reedgrass/thickspike wheatgrass on the 4 treatments at postfire year 12 [12,13]:
| Treatment | Production (lbs/acre) |
|---|---|
| Unburned | 111.8 |
| Light burn | 194.9 |
| Moderate burn | 208.4 |
| Heavy burn | 222.8 |
By 1966 (postfire year 30), plains reedgrass/thickspike wheatgrass air-dry herbage production on unburned sites was greater than on burned sites [12,13]. Harniss and Murray [46] returned to the burn site 30 years after the fire and found that plains reedgrass/thickspike wheatgrass production on unburned sites was 152 pounds/acre and 92 pounds/acre on burned sites. In their study, Harniss and Murray did not differentiate between light, moderate, and heavy burn sites [46].
Fire Regimes
Plains reedgrass is found in the sagebrush-grasslands of the northern Great Basin and in the mixed-grass prairies of the northern Great Plains, which exhibit a wide range of historic fire frequencies.
Northern Great Plains: Historically fire has played an important role in the northern Great Plains. The large tracts of continuous mixed-grass prairie, which occur in hot, dry areas and accumulate much fine fuel, are susceptible to frequent lightning fires. Higgins [49] estimates that 6 lightning fires consuming 4,000 miles² (10,000 km&²) of grasslands occur a year in eastern North Dakota, and 25 lightning fires consuming 4,000 miles² (10,000 km²) of grasslands occur a year in western North Dakota. Early records kept by explorers, trappers, and settlers note a high occurrence of fires, both natural and anthropogenic, with fires occurring at intervals of 5 to 10 years [29,70,95]. Since the early 1900s, fire has been excluded, allowing nonnative species such as Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus), smooth brome (B. inermis), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), and Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) to take a strong hold in the area [29].
Plains reedgrass-prairie Junegrass communities in Jasper National Park, Alberta, are typically associated with Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) forests. Fire suppression in the Alberta Rocky Mountains beginning in the late 1800's has led to an unprecedented increase of coniferous trees on plains reedgrass-prairie Junegrass grasslands [5,75]. Using fire scar evidence, a fire history chronology was established in Jasper National Park for 1665 to 1975. Grassland fires were most commonly surface fires. The mean fire return intervals for 3 grassland sites in the southern, center, and northern section of the Park are presented in the table below [84]:
| Location | Number of fires | Mean fire return interval (years) | Range (years) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Prairie de la Vache (S.) | 10 | 18.8 | 10-39 |
| Maligne River (Ctr.) | 9 | 21.2 | 1-67 |
| Henry House (N.) | 7 | 21.7 | 1-40 |
Sagebrush-grasslands: Fire in the sagebrush-grasslands where plains reedgrass grows likely occurred with a frequency of 20 to 70 years [70]. Wright and others [96] hypothesize that fires likely occurred about every 50 years. Changes in land use and management practices, such as the invasion of cheatgrass (B. tectorum), have altered the fire return interval to less than 10 years in some areas [68,70].
The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where plains reedgrass is important. For additional fire regime information, search FEIS for this species by entering the species name on the Advanced Search page and selecting “Fire Regime” as the publication type.
| Community or ecosystem | Dominant species | Fire return interval range (years) |
|---|---|---|
| bluestem prairie | Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium | <10 [57,70] |
| Nebraska sandhills prairie | Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium | <10 [70] |
| silver sagebrush steppe | Artemisia cana | 5-45 [48,73,95] |
| sagebrush steppe | Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata | 20-70 [70] |
| basin big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata | 12-43 [78] |
| mountain big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana | 15-40 [3,21,64] |
| Wyoming big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis | 10-70 (x=40) [89,97] |
| plains grasslands | Bouteloua spp. | <35 [70,95] |
| blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass | Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii | <35 [70,77,95] |
| cheatgrass | Bromus tectorum | <10 [72,92] |
| western juniper | Juniperus occidentalis | 20-70 |
| Rocky Mountain juniper | Juniperus scopulorum | <35 [70] |
| wheatgrass plains grasslands | Pascopyrum smithii | <5-47+ [70,73,95] |
| Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir | Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa | 35 to >200 [2] |
| pinyon-juniper | Pinus-Juniperus spp. | <35 [70] |
| Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* | Pinus contorta var. latifolia | 25-340 [7,8,84] |
| Pacific ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa | 1-47 [2] |
| interior ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum | 2-30 [2,6,61] |
| quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) | Populus tremuloides | 7-120 [2,44,63] |
| mountain grasslands | Pseudoroegneria spicata | 3-40 (x=10) [1,2] |
| Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* | Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca | 25-100 [2,3,4] |
| little bluestem-grama prairie | Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. | <35 [70] |
*Fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the Species Review
Fire Management Considerations
The research described above suggests that prescription burning favors plains reedgrass. If fire is used to manage plains reedgrass, however, managers should use caution and follow the guidelines addressed below.
Burning Season
In the northern Great Plains, best increases in seed production, vigor, and canopy cover of cool-season grasses are obtained when prescription fires are conducted in early spring (March-April) or late summer (August-September) [50]. In sagebrush-grasslands, burning favors rhizomatous species such as plains reedgrass if fires are conducted when rhizomatous plants are dormant [12,19].
Grazing
Burned rangelands containing plains reedgrass should be protected from grazing during postfire year 1 to allow for uninterrupted growth of herbaceous vegetation [12,19].
Invasive Species
Improper fire management may convert desirable shrub and perennial grass stands to annual grass and invasive shrub stands [93,96]. Wright and others [96] suggest that if fires occur in big sagebrush-grasslands at frequencies of less than every 50 years, the communities may become dominated by rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) and gray horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens), sprouting species that respond vigorously to fire. Cheatgrass may also expand after fire and severely reduce native plant coverage [71,93,96].
Sagebrush-grassland Communities
Plains reedgrass occurs in sagebrush-grasslands with species that can be harmed by fire [93]. June or July fires can be especially harmful to Idaho fescue and needle-and-thread grass [12,96]. Threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), which has a compact growth form, is also harmed by fire [96]. Big sagebrush is slow to recover from extensive fires [12].
Federal Status
None
Other Status
Plains reedgrass is listed as a plant of special concern in Minnesota [65].
Importance to Wildlife and Livestock
Plains reedgrass provides substantial forage on dry benches and sagebrush flats, and is considered fair to good forage for cattle and horses [14,66,86]. Its forage rating for domestic sheep is poor to fair [66,86]. Plains reedgrass is the only species of the genus Calamagrostis that has much range grazing importance on the dry prairies and foothills of the northern Great Plains [86].
In a cattle grazing study on western Montana rangelands, plains reedgrass was slightly to moderately grazed in needle-and-thread grass-blue grama communities, moderately to heavily grazed in bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama communities, moderately grazed in bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass communities, and slightly to heavily grazed in rough fescue (Festuca altaica)-bluebunch wheatgrass communities [67].
Plains reedgrass-prairie Junegrass grasslands along the east slope of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta are heavily grazed by elk and bighorn sheep in spring, fall, and winter [5,83].
Palatability and Nutritional Value
Plains reedgrass has coarse leaves, making it less palatable than most prairie species in its range [12]. The palatability of plains reedgrass is rated as follows [30,67]:
| Animal | Montana | North Dakota | Wyoming | Colorado |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cattle | fair-good | — | fair | fair |
| Domestic sheep | poor-fair | fair | fair | fair |
| Horses | fair | fair | fair | fair |
| Elk | fair-good | — | — | — |
| Mule deer | poor | poor | poor | — |
| White-tailed deer | — | poor | poor | — |
Early in the growing season, plains reedgrass is considered high in nutritional value, but deteriorates by mid-summer [94]. During the growing seasons 1946 and 1947, the average moisture and nutritive content of plains reedgrass was measured at Dickinson Experiment Station in western North Dakota. The moisture, carotene, protein, and phosphorus values for plains reedgrass were on average lower than the upland cool season species western wheatgrass, needle-and-thread grass, threadleaf sedge, and prairie Junegrass [94].
| Month | May | June | July | August | September |
| Moisture (%) | 60.9 | 57.7 | 49.8 | 31.6 | 24.4 |
| Carotene (mg/100 g.) | 25.8 | 23.2 | 12.0 | 5.8 | 4.6 |
| Crude protein (%) | 14.3 | 12.8 | 8.4 | 6.0 | 5.5 |
| Phosphorus (%) | 0.218 | 0.214 | 0.173 | 0.128 | 0.127 |
Cover Value
Plains reedgrass provides cover for ungulates, small mammals, and birds. The cover value for plains reedgrass for wildlife species is rated as follows [30]:
| Animal | Montana | North Dakota | Wyoming |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pronghorn | — | poor | poor |
| Mule deer | — | good | poor |
| White-tailed deer | — | good | poor |
| Small mammals | — | — | fair |
| Small nongame birds | fair | — | — |
| Upland game birds | fair | — | — |
| Waterfowl | poor | — | — |
Plains reedgrass provides cover for greater sage-grouse on dry upland sagebrush communities of southwestern Colorado [39] and eastern Idaho [56].
Value for Rehabilitation of Disturbed Sites
Plains reedgrass is a strongly rhizomatous [14,47,52,53], sod-forming [26,28] grass. While there is no research available, it likely has erosion control potential.
Other Uses
No information is available on this topic.
Other Management Considerations
Fertilization
Goetz [41] discusses the effects of nitrogen fertilization on plains reedgrass.
Grazing
Plains reedgrass both increased and decreased under cattle grazing pressure in the mixed-grass prairies of southwestern North Dakota. On 2 study sites, Sagebrush Flat and East Tracy Mountain, mean aboveground biomass was 41.6 g/m² and 0.7 g/m² on grazed plots and 101.7 g/m² and 1.3 g/² on ungrazed plots, respectively. At West Tracy Mountain and Sandy Upland, mean aboveground biomass was substantially lower on ungrazed (0.1 g/² and <0.1 g/m², respectively) than grazed (6.7 g/m° and 1.5 g/m°, respectively) plots [16,17]. At the Dickinson Experimental Station in the North Dakota mixed-grass prairie, plains reedgrass was not found on ungrazed sites, but made up 16% of vegetation on livestock grazed sites [25]. A further study in North Dakota found a slight increase of plains reedgrass on cattle grazed sites (0.3% basal cover) compared to ungrazed sites (0.1% basal cover) [15].
Plains reedgrass both significantly (p<0.01) increased and decreased under cattle and domestic sheep grazing pressure on the Vigilante Experimental Range in southwestern Montana. In an Idaho fescue-thickspike wheatgrass-plains reedgrass community, plains reedgrass averaged 8.9 stems/cm² on grazed sites and 15.2/cm² on sites protected from grazing for 26 years. In a Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) community, plains reedgrass stem density on grazed sites was 14.6/cm² and 6.7/cm² on sites protected from grazing for 15 to 18 years [36]. On both sites, grazing caused a significant (p<0.01) decrease in the mature height of plains reedgrass. In the Idaho fescue-thickspike wheatgrass-plains reedgrass community, the average mature height measured 5.6 inches (14.3 cm) on grazed plots and 7.2 inches (18.4 cm) on ungrazed plots. In the Sandberg bluegrass community, the average mature height of plains reedgrass was 4.9 inches (12.4 cm) on grazed plots and 5.6 inches (14.2 cm) on ungrazed plots [36].
Zacek and others [98] describe plains reedgrass as an "increaser" on grazed range sites in the foothills and mountains of western Montana. Lacey and Mosley [59] describes plains reedgrass as an "increaser" on Montana rangelands. On the northern Great Plains, plains reedgrass both increased and decreased when subjected to grazing pressures [81].
Domestic sheep grazing on a ranch in Meagher County, Montana, caused a decrease in plains reedgrass cover (%), herbage yield, leaf growth, and seed stalk growth. Cover of plains reedgrass on protected and grazed sites in 1953 and 1957 ranged from 0.4% to 1.5%. In 1957, average herbage yield of plains reedgrass was 70 lbs/acre on protected sites and 50 lbs/acre on grazed sites. Plains reedgrass average longest leaf and tallest seed stalk was 6 inches (15 cm) and 9 inches (24 cm) on protected sites and 5 inches (12 cm) and 8 inches (21 cm) on grazed sites, respectively [90].
Herbicides
Carr [22] discusses the effect of 2,4-D on plains reedgrass.
Table A1— Forest and range ecosystems, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) physiographic regions, Kuchler plant associations, Society for American Foresters (SAF) forest cover types, and Society for Rangeland Management (SRM) rangeland cover types in which this species occurs.
Forest and Range Ecosystems
- FRES19 Aspen-birch
- FRES20 Douglas-fir
- FRES21 Ponderosa pine
- FRES23 Fir-spruce
- FRES26 Lodgepole pine
- FRES28 Western hardwoods
- FRES29 Sagebrush
- FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
- FRES36 Mountain grasslands
- FRES37 Mountain meadows
- FRES38 Plains grasslands
- FRES39 Prairie [38]
BLM Physiographic Regions
- 5 Columbia Plateau
- 10 Wyoming Basin
- 14 Great Plains
- 16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands [11]
Kuchler Plant Associations
- K012 Douglas-fir forest
- K015 Western spruce-fir forest
- K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
- K024 Juniper steppe woodland
- K038 Great Basin sagebrush
- K050 Fescue-wheatgrass
- K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass
- K055 Sagebrush steppe
- K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe
- K063 Foothills prairie
- K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass
- K065 Grama-buffalo grass
- K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
- K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
- K074 Bluestem prairie
- K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie [58]
SAF Cover Types
- 16 Aspen
- 63 Cottonwood
- 107 White spruce
- 206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir
- 210 Interior Douglas-fir
- 217 Aspen
- 218 Lodgepole pine
- 220 Rocky Mountain juniper
- 235 Cottonwood-willow
- 237 Interior ponderosa pine
- 238 Western juniper
- 239 Pinyon-juniper [37]
SRM Rangeland Cover Types
- 101 Bluebunch wheatgrass
- 102 Idaho fescue
- 104 Antelope bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
- 105 Antelope bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
- 107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass
- 301 Bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama
- 302 Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass
- 303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass
- 304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
- 306 Idaho fescue-slender wheatgrass
- 307 Idaho fescue-threadleaf sedge
- 308 Idaho fescue-tufted hairgrass
- 309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass
- 310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama
- 311 Rough fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
- 312 Rough fescue-Idaho fescue
- 313 Tufted hairgrass-sedge
- 314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
- 315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue
- 316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue
- 317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
- 318 Bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
- 319 Bitterbrush-rough fescue
- 320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
- 321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue
- 323 Shrubby cinquefoil-rough fescue
- 324 Threetip sagebrush-Idaho fescue
- 401 Basin big sagebrush
- 402 Mountain big sagebrush
- 403 Wyoming big sagebrush
- 404 Threetip sagebrush
- 405 Black sagebrush
- 406 Low sagebrush
- 408 Other sagebrush types
- 409 Tall forb
- 410 Alpine rangeland
- 411 Aspen woodland
- 412 Juniper-pinyon woodland
- 601 Bluestem prairie
- 602 Bluestem-prairie sandreed
- 603 Prairie sandreed-needlegrass
- 606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
- 607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
- 608 Wheatgrass-grama-needlegrass
- 609 Wheatgrass-grama
- 610 Wheatgrass
- 611 Blue grama-buffalo grass
- 612 Sagebrush-grass
- 613 Fescue grassland
- 614 Crested wheatgrass
- 615 Wheatgrass-saltgrass-grama
- 704 Blue grama-western wheatgrass
- 721 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (plains) [79]
1. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]
2. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]
3. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]
4. Arno, Stephen F.; Scott, Joe H.; Hartwell, Michael G. 1995. Age-class structure of old growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir stands and its relationship to fire history. Res. Pap. INT-RP-481. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 25 p. [25928]
5. Bailey, Arthur W. 1975. Rangeland resources on Alberta's east slope. Agriculture Bulletin. 26: 3-6. [53376]
6. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]
7. Barrett, Stephen W. 1993. Fire regimes on the Clearwater and Nez Perce National Forests north-central Idaho. Final Report: Order No. 43-0276-3-0112. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. 21 p. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [41883]
8. Barrett, Stephen W.; Arno, Stephen F.; Key, Carl H. 1991. Fire regimes of western larch - lodgepole pine forests in Glacier National Park, Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 1711-1720. [17290]
9. Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. 2001. Seeds: ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 666 p. [60775]
10. Bayer, Randall J. 1992. Allozyme variation, genecology, and phytogeography of Antennaria arcuata (Asteraceae), a rare species from the Red Desert with small disjunct populations. American Journal of Botany. 79(8): 872-881. [19778]
11. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
12. Blaisdell, James P. 1953. Ecological effects of planned burning of sagebrush-grass range on the upper Snake River Plains. Tech. Bull. 1975. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 39 p. [462]
13. Blaisdell, James P.; Murray, Robert B.; McArthur, E. Durant. 1982. Managing Intermountain rangelands--sagebrush-grass ranges. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-134. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 41 p. [467]
14. Booth, W. E. 1950. Flora of Montana. Part I: Conifers and monocots. Bozeman, MT: The Research Foundation at Montana State College. 232 p. [48662]
15. Brand, M. D.; Goetz, H. 1978. Secondary succession of a mixed grass community in southwestern North Dakota. Annual Proceedings of the North Dakota Academy of Science. 32(2): 67-78. [7512]
16. Brand, Michael D. 1980. Secondary succession in the mixed grass prairie of southwestern North Dakota. Fargo, ND: North Dakota State University. 77 p. Dissertation. [14147]
17. Brand, Michael D.; Goetz, Harold. 1986. Vegetation of exclosures in southwestern North Dakota. Journal of Range Management. 39(5): 434-437. [507]
18. Branson, F. A.; Miller, R. F.; McQueen, I. S. 1970. Plant communities and associated soil and water factors on shale-derived soils in northeastern Montana. Ecology. 51(3): 391-407. [55521]
19. Britton, Carlton M.; Ralphs, Michael H. 1979. Use of fire as a management tool in sagebrush ecosystems. In: The sagebrush ecosystem: a symposium: Proceedings; 1978 April; Logan, UT. Logan, UT: Utah State University, College of Natural Resources: 101-109. [518]
20. Brown, Raymond William, Jr. 1965. The distribution of plant communities in the badlands of southeastern Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 145 p. Thesis. [46903]
21. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]
22. Carr, Harold D. 1967. Effects of sagebrush spraying on abundance, distribution and movements of sage grouse. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 106 p. Thesis. [5877]
23. Clarke, S. E.; Tisdale, E. W.; Skoglund, N. A. 1943. The effects of climate and grazing practices on short-grass prairie vegetation in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. Technical Bulletin No. 46. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Dominion, Department of Agriculture. 53 p. [635]
24. Cotter, James F. 1963. Causation and plant succession in disturbed areas of southwestern Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 88 p. Thesis. [46901]
25. Coupland, R. T. 1992. Mixed prairie. In: Coupland, R. T., ed. Natural grasslands: Introduction and western hemisphere. Ecosystems of the World 8A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.: 151-182. [23825]
26. Coupland, Robert T. 1950. Ecology of mixed prairie in Canada. Ecological Monographs. 20(4): 271-315. [700]
27. Coupland, Robert T. 1961. A reconsideration of grassland classification in the northern Great Plains of North America. Journal of Ecology. 49: 135-167. [12588]
28. Coupland, Robert T.; Johnson, R. E. 1965. Rooting characteristics of native grassland species of Saskatchewan. Journal of Ecology. 53: 475-507. [702]
29. Dingman, Sandra; Paintner, Kara J. 2001. Defining landscape vision to monitor and manage prescribed fire at Badlands National Park, South Dakota. In: Bernstein, Neil P.; Ostrander, Laura J., eds. Seeds for the future; roots of the past: Proceedings of the 17th North American prairie conference; 2000 July 16-20; Mason City, IA. Mason City, IA: North Iowa Community College: 73-78. [46496]
30. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
31. Dodd, J, D.; Coupland, R. T. 1966. Vegetation of saline areas in Saskatchewan. Ecology. 47(6): 958-968. [11209]
32. Dolan, John Joseph. 1966. Long-term responses of dense clubmoss (Selaginella densa Rydb.) to range renovation practices in northern Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 83 p. Thesis. [12330]
33. Dorn, Robert D. 1977. Flora of the Black Hills. [Place of publication unknown]: Robert D. Dorn and Jane L. Dorn. 377 p. [820]
34. Dorn, Robert D. 1984. Vascular plants of Montana. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 276 p. [819]
35. Dorn, Robert D. 1988. Vascular plants of Wyoming. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 340 p. [6129]
36. Evanko, Anthony B.; Peterson, Roald A. 1955. Comparisons of protected and grazed mountain rangelands in southwestern Montana. Ecology. 36(1): 71-82. [55519]
37. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
38. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
39. Gill, R. Bruce. 1965. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Job Completion Report. Colorado Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-37-R-17: April 1,1963 to December 6, 1965. Denver, CO: Colorado Game, Fish, and Parks Department. 185 p. [36876]
40. Goetz, Harold. 1963. Growth and development of native range plants in the mixed grass prairie of western North Dakota. Fargo, ND: North Dakota State University. 141 p. Thesis. [5661]
41. Goetz, Harold. 1969. Composition and yields of native grassland sites fertilized at different rates of nitrogen. Journal of Range Management. 22(6): 384-390. [1029]
42. Gould, Frank W.; Shaw, Robert B. 1983. Grass systematics. 2d ed. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. 397 p. [5667]
43. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
44. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. [3862]
45. Hanson, Herbert C.; Whitman, Warren. 1938. Characteristics of major grassland types in western North Dakota. Ecological Monographs. 8(2): 57-114. [15]
46. Harniss, Roy O.; Murray, Robert B. 1973. 30 years of vegetal change following burning of sagebrush-grass range. Journal of Range Management. 26(5): 322-325. [1086]
47. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2d ed. Chicago: The Swallow Press, Inc. 666 p. [6851]
48. Heyerdahl, Emily K.; Berry, Dawn; Agee, James K. 1994. Fire history database of the western United States. Final report. Interagency agreement: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency DW12934530; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service PNW-93-0300; University of Washington 61-2239. Seattle, WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station; University of Washington, College of Forest Resources. 28 p. [+ appendices]. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [27979]
49. Higgins, Kenneth F. 1984. Lightning fires in North Dakota grasslands and in pine-savanna lands of South Dakota and Montana. Journal of Range Management. 37(2): 100-103. [1148]
50. Higgins, Kenneth F.; Kruse, Arnold D.; Piehl, James L. 1989. Prescribed burning guidelines in the Northern Great Plains. Ext. Circ. EC-760. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University. 36 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; U.S. Department of Agriculture, South Dakota Cooperative Extension Service. [14185]
51. Hitchcock, A. S. 1951. Manual of the grasses of the United States. Misc. Publ. No. 200. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration. 1051 p. [2nd edition revised by Agnes Chase in two volumes. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.]. [1165]
52. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
53. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur; Ownbey, Marion. 1969. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 1: Vascular cryptogams, gymnosperms, and monocotyledons. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 914 p. [1169]
54. Hubbard, William A. 1950. The climate, soils, and soil-plant relationships of an area in southwestern Saskatchewan. Scientific Agriculture. 30(8): 327-342. [6263]
55. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with: The Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]
56. Klebenow, Donald A. 1969. Sage grouse nesting and brood habitat in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 33(3): 649-662. [26035]
57. Kucera, Clair L. 1981. Grasslands and fire. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; Lotan, J. E.; Reiners, W. A., technical coordinators. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 90-111. [4389]
58. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]
59. Lacey, John; Mosley, John. 2002. 250 plants for range contests in Montana. MONTGUIDE MT198402 AG 6/2002. Range E-2 (Misc.). Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Extension Service. 4 p. [43671]
60. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1986. Plants of west-central Montana--identification and ecology: annotated checklist. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-217. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [2955]
61. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]
62. Lyon, L. Jack; Hooper, Robert G.; Telfer, Edmund S.; Schreiner, David Scott. 2000. Fire effects on wildlife foods. In: Smith, Jane Kapler, ed. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on fauna. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 1. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 51-58. [44448]
63. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]
64. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [25666]
65. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 2006. Vascular plants - special concern, [Online]. In: Endangered, threatened and special concern species. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (Producer). Available: http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/ets/vascular_special.html [2006, February 20]. [60685]
66. Morris, H. E.; Booth, W. E.; Payne, G. F.; Stitt, R. E. 1950. Important grasses on Montana ranges. Bull. No. 470. Bozeman, MT: Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 52 p. [5520]
67. Mueggler, W. F.; Stewart, W. L. 1980. Grassland and shrubland habitat types of western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-66. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 154 p. [1717]
68. Obrist, Daniel; Delucia, Evan H.; Arnone, John A., III. 2003. Consequences of wildfire on ecosystem CO2 and water vapour fluxes in the Great Basin. Global Change Biology. 9(4): 563-574. [46059]
69. Payne, Gene F. 1973. Vegetative rangeland types in Montana. Bull. 671. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 15 p. [1847]
70. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-volume 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
71. Pechanec, Joseph F.; Stewart, George; Blaisdell, James P. 1954. Sagebrush burning good and bad. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [1859]
72. Peters, Erin F.; Bunting, Stephen C. 1994. Fire conditions pre- and postoccurrence of annual grasses on the Snake River Plain. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., compilers. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 31-36. [24249]
73. Quinnild, Clayton L.; Cosby, Hugh E. 1958. Relicts of climax vegetation on two mesas in western North Dakota. Ecology. 39(1): 29-32. [1925]
74. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
75. Rhemtulla, Jeanine Marie. 1999. Eighty years of change: the montane vegetation of Jasper National Park. Edmonton, AB: University of Alberta. 109 p. Thesis. [35582]
76. Ross, Robert L.; Hunter, Harold E. 1976. Climax vegetation of Montana: Based on soils and climate. Bozeman, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 64 p. [2028]
77. Rowe, J. S. 1969. Lightning fires in Saskatchewan grassland. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 83: 317-324. [6266]
78. Sapsis, David B. 1990. Ecological effects of spring and fall prescribed burning on basin big sagebrush/Idaho fescue--bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 105 p. Thesis. [16579]
79. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]
80. Smith, Edwin Lamar, Jr. 1966. Soil-vegetation relationships of some Artemisia types in North Park, Colorado. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 203 p. Dissertation. [2171]
81. Smoliak, S. 1965. A comparison of ungrazed and lightly grazed Stipa-Bouteloua prairie in southeastern Alberta. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 45: 270-275. [12391]
82. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. FEIS postfire regeneration workshop--April 12: Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. 10 p. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [20090]
83. Stringer, P. W. 1973. An ecological study of grasslands in Banff, Jasper, and Waterton Lakes national parks. Canadian Journal of Botany. 51: 383-411. [35357]
84. Tande, Gerald F. 1979. Fire history and vegetation pattern of coniferous forests in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57: 1912-1931. [18676]
85. Thilenius, John F. 1971. Vascular plants of the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Res. Pap. RM-71. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 43 p. [2319]
86. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]
87. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. PLANTS database (2006), [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov /. [34262]
88. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1948. Grass: The yearbook of agriculture 1948. Washington, DC. 892 p. [2391]
89. Vincent, Dwain W. 1992. The sagebrush/grasslands of the upper Rio Puerco area, New Mexico. Rangelands. 14(5): 268-271. [19698]
90. Vogel, W. G.; Van Dyne, G. M. 1966. Vegetation responses to grazing management on a foothill sheep range. Journal of Range Management. 19: 80-85. [12263]
91. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2nd ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]
92. Whisenant, Steven G. 1990. Postfire population dynamics of Bromus japonicus. The American Midland Naturalist. 123: 301-308. [11150]
93. Whisenant, Steven G. 2004. Vegetative manipulation with prescribed burning. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L., comps. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol-1. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 101-120. [52824]
94. Whitman, Warren C.; Bolin, D. W.; Klosterman, Earle W.; Klostermann, H. J.; Ford, Kenneth D.; Moomaw, Leroy; Hoag, D. G.; Buchanan, M. L. 1951. Carotene, protein, and phosphorus in range and tame grasses of western North Dakota. Bulletin No. 370. Fargo, ND: North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural Experiment Station. 43 p. [54159]
95. Wright, Henry A.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire ecology: United States and southern Canada. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. [2620]
96. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]
97. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1981. Demography and fire history of a western juniper stand. Journal of Range Management. 34(6): 501-505. [2659]
98. Zacek, Joseph C.; Hunter, Harold E.; Bown, T. A.; Ross, Robert L. 1977. Montana grazing guides. [Washington, DC]: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 12 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [2687]