T
T
T
Species Review

Mahonia nervosa, Cascade barberry

Written
September, 1990
Contributors
D. Tirmenstein - 1st Author

Tirmenstein, D. A. 1990. Mahonia nervosa, Cascade barberry. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). https://research.fs.usda.gov/feis/species-reviews/mahner

DOI
10.2737/feis-species-review-mahner

AbbreviationCommon NameScientific NameClassificationStatus
Plants
MAHNERCascade barberryMahonia nervosaLife Form: Plants/Shrub, Plants/Subshrub
Kingdom: Plantae
Class: Dicot
Order: Ranunculales
Family: Berberidaceae
Genus: Mahonia		Fed. Protected: No
Nativity: Native
Invasiveness: Noninvasive

A close up photo of a shrub's serrated, shiny green leaves and a cluster of dusty blue berries.
A photo of a dark, lush forest understory with many green shrubs growing together. The central shrub has pointed, opposite, serrated leaves on straight stems.

Taxonomy

The scientific name of Cascade barberry is Mahonia nervosa (Pursh.) Nutt (Berberidaceae) [99,100].

Synonyms

  • Berberis nervosa Pursh.
  • Berberis nervosa Pursh. var. mendocinesis J. B. Roof [102,103]

Other Common Names

Cascades Oregon-grape, Cascades mahonia, dwarf Oregon-grape, dull Oregon-grape, longleaf mahonia

General Distribution

Cascade barberry occurs west of the Cascade Ranges and the Sierra Nevada from southern British Columbia through Washington and Oregon to central California [47].

States and Provinces

  • United States: CA ID OR WA
  • Canada: BC

Site Characteristics

Cascade barberry occurs across a wide range of habitats in submontane to montane forests of the Pacific Northwest [35,54]. It is a characteristic shrub of spruce-fir forests [14] but also occurs in northern coastal coniferous forests and in redwood, mixed evergreen, and bottomland forests [30,69,78]. In Pacific silver fir communities, Cascade barberry is generally restricted to warm, dry sites. In old-growth Douglas-fir stands of northwestern Oregon, it reaches greatest abundance on relatively dry sites [82]. This shrub occurs on dry to fairly moist sites in western hemlock types but reaches greatest abundance on warmer sites [42,85]. Cascade barberry is also common in the warmer Port Orford-cedar communities [3].

Cascade barberry commonly grows as scattered, or abundant, individuals but can dominate the understory of semi-open forests [54]. It frequently forms "lush carpets" in open meadows bordering coniferous stands [71] and commonly persists in coastal brushfields created by timber harvest [33,43,51]. Cascade barberry grows well in sun or shade [54,87].

Soils: Cascade barberry grows well on a variety of soil types [70] including coarse, shallow rocky soils, coarse alluvium, or glacial outwash [39]. Soils are well drained to poorly drained, and dry to fresh [28,54,70]. Soils are derived from a wide range of parent material including basalt and metavolcanics, sandstone, siltstone, diorite, and gabbro [3,7,44,90]. Good growth has been reported on acidic to moderately alkaline or even somewhat saline soils [70].

Climate: Cascade barberry grows in maritime to submaritime climates. Growing seasons are fairly long [35]. Some sites experience summer drought [43].

Elevation: Cascade barberry grows at low to middle elevations [35,90]. In California, it is restricted to sites below 6,000 feet (1,829 m) [69].

Plant Communities

A photo of a dark, lush forest understory with many green shrubs growing together. The central shrub has pointed, opposite, serrated leaves on straight stems.
Photo Credit
Photo by Nate Hartley, iNaturalist.org, some rights reserved.

Cascade barberry in a mixed understory, Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area, Multnomah County, Oregon. (CC BY-NC 4.0)

Cascade barberry is an understory dominant in montane to submontane coniferous and mixed evergreen forests of the Pacific Northwest. Oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor), Alaska huckleberry (Vaccinium alaskaense), salal (Gaultheria shallon), pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites), western sword fern (Polystichum munitum), Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), Sadler oak (Quercus sadleriana), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), deerfoot vanillaleaf (Achyls triphylla), Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), and vine maple (Acer circinatum) occur as codominants within the forest understory. Cascade barberry is listed as an indicator or dominant in the following publications:

  • Forest types of the North Cascades National Park Service Complex [2]
  • The tanoak series of the Siskiyou region of southwest Oregon (Part 2) [6]
  • Preliminary plant associations of the Siskiyou Mountain Province [5]
  • Plant association and management guide for the Pacific silver fir zone: Gifford Pinchot National Forest [11]
  • Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington [24]
  • Understory development in Pseudotsuga forests: multiple paths of succession [33]
  • Forest succession on alluvial landforms of the McKenzie River Valley, Oregon [39]
  • Plant communities in the old-growth forests of north coastal Oregon [44]
  • Forest ecosystems of Mount Rainier National Park [68]
  • Mixed evergreen forest [78].

Plant associates: Common overstory associates in addition to those mentioned in Table A1 include Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), and tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflora) [2,31,42,74,84,89]. In spruce-fir forests, Cascade barberry grows with understory species such as twinflower, rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.), and queencup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora). Beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) occurs on drier sites [23]. Common associates in Douglas-fir or western hemlock forests include oceanspray, trailing blackberry (Rubus ursinus), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), Alaska huckleberry, salal, Pacific rhododendron, vine maple, broadleaf starflower (Trientalis latifolia), and mosses such as Kindbergia oregana [21,32,44,54,67]. Old-growth stands are often characterized by a depauperate understory [48]. In redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) communities, western sword fern, salal, Oregon oxalis, and redwood violet (Viola sempervirens) are common associates [60].

Botanical Description

Cascade barberry is a low-growing rhizomatous evergreen shrub which typically reaches 4 to 24 inches in height [28,69]. On exceptional sites, plants may grow to 7 feet (2.1 m) [81]. The simple stems are ascending to erect and generally occur in loose colonies of several stems [69,46,71]. Compound leaves are borne in terminal tufts [66,69]. Coarsely serrate to spinose, ovate to lance-ovate or acute leaflets occur in groups of 7 to 21 [46,69,95]. Leaflets are dark green, thick, and leathery [71,95]. Yellow flowers are borne in erect clusters or racemes up to 8 inches (21 cm) in length [66,69,71]. The fruit is a large, dark blue, globose berry with grayish or whitish bloom [28,69,71,95]. Berries are 0.3 to 0.4 inch (8-10 mm) in diameter, occur in clusters [35], and contain a number of black seeds [95].

A close up photo of a shrub's serrated, shiny green leaves and a cluster of dusty blue berries.
Photo Credit
Photo by Don Loarie, iNaturalist.org, some rights reserved.

Cascade barberry fruits, Mendocino County, California. (CC BY 4.0)

Raunkiaer Life Form (Raunkiaer 1934)

  • Phanerophyte

Seasonal Development

Plants flower in early to late spring. Fruit ripens during July and August [87]. Generalized flowering and fruiting dates are as follows [35,46,69,75,95]:

LocationFloweringFruit ripe
NorthwestMarch-June—
CaliforniaApril-June—
Oregon (300 ft [91 m])early Aprilmid-August
Oregon (3,250 ft [991 m])mid-Maylate August
western Oregon, southwest WashingtonMarch-June—
WashingtonMaySeptember

Regeneration Processes

Cascade barberry can reproduce from seed or by vegetative means.

Seed: Seed of most Oregon-grapes exhibit internal dormancy and require cold stratification for germination. However, in certain laboratory tests, Cascade barberry seed did not germinate after 90 days of cold stratification [75]. Results of other studies indicate that seed will germinate if sown immediately or if stratified and planted in the spring [15]. Maximum germination capacity in laboratory tests was estimated at 77 percent [75]. Under natural conditions, seeds of most species within the genus germinate during the spring [15]. The role of sexual reproduction on disturbed sites is poorly known [32].

Vegetative regeneration: Cascade barberry is rhizomatous [47] and gradually expands laterally in the absence of disturbance. Layering has also been reported [15]. Plants generally sprout from rhizomes or "creeping rootstocks" after aboveground portions of the plant are destroyed [47,74,87,91]. Vegetative regeneration appears to be the dominant mode of regeneration after fire or other disturbances [32].

Successional Status

Cascade barberry is an important component of both seral and climax communities of the Pacific Northwest. It occurs in recent clearcuts as well as in stands 300 to 600 years or older [20,82]. It is a woody survivor or residual colonizer, generally increasing dramatically after low intensity disturbances such as light fires [32,91]. It commonly persists on cutover [54] or lightly burned sites. Residual survivors sprouted soon after the eruption of Mount St. Helens [34] and were particularly evident in protected microsites such as near the bases or rootwads of trees. The intensity of disturbance, and of fires in particular, exerts a great influence on Cascade barberry [33,58]. In many areas, it codominates a site soon after light-severity disturbance but may decline in early seral stages when it is overtopped by rapidly growing conifer seedlings [33,49].

Annuals and weedy invaders commonly dominate early seral stages where disturbance has been intense [58]. Fireweed and wood groundsel (Senecio sylvaticus) assume dominance during the first 1 to 3 years on many intensely disturbed sites [71]. Perennials such as Cascade barberry may not become prominent on intensely burned sites until midsuccessional stages. In some areas, 30 to 40 years or more may be required before maximum abundance of Cascade barberry is reached [79]. It does not attain maximum cover until later seral stages in many western redcedar-western hemlock-Douglas-fir forests of the Cascade Ranges of Oregon and Washington [18,49].

Cascade barberry can assume importance in shrub-dominated stages which develop 4 to 5 years after disturbance in western hemlock forests of the Pacific Northwest [24], and can achieve peak abundance within 5 to 10 years after fire in many parts of this region [32]. In the central Oregon Coast Ranges, it exhibits rapid regrowth and shares understory dominance in 7- to 50-year-old forests [7].

Cascade barberry is tolerant of shade and can complete its life cycle even in dense forests of the Pacific Northwest [73]. In the Coast Ranges of central Oregon, it dominates many old-growth western hemlock-western redcedar forest understories [7]. It is also an important component of many climatic or topoedaphic climax western hemlock communities [4,38,39]. Many seral Douglas-fir/Cascade barberry communities ultimately give rise to climax western hemlock types [38,39] as Douglas-fir declines late in succession [7]. Late seral Douglas-fir/vine maple-Cascade barberry communities become climax western hemlock-Pacific rhododendron-Cascade barberry communities [24].

Immediate Fire Effects

Cascade barberry is moderately damaged by light- to moderate-severity fires [4]. Underground regenerative structures often survive even if aboveground portions are consumed by fire [74,91].

Postfire Regeneration Strategy (Stickney 1989)

  • Rhizomatous shrub, rhizome in soil

Fire Adaptations

Cascade barberry persists in closed forest stands with long fire-free intervals. However, as a residual survivor, it is also well-adapted to a regime of "relatively frequent surface fires" such as those common in certain Douglas-fir-western hemlock/Cascade barberry types of Oregon [43].

Cascade barberry commonly sprouts and grows vigorously after fire [74]. Reestablishment through seed may occur, although vegetative regeneration is the dominant mode of postfire establishment [32].

Plant Response to Fire

Cascade barberry often sprouts from underground rhizomes after aboveground portions of the plant are killed [74,91]. However, response varies with fire intensity, severity [33,58], and season. Atzet and Wheeler [4] noted sprouts after light-severity fires but did not observe sprouting after moderate-severity fires. Seedling establishment after fire has not been documented [32] and may be insignificant.

Postfire recovery: Postfire reestablishment and growth of Cascade barberry is often rapid [74]. In western Washington, sprouts are commonly observed soon after fire [53]. Under some circumstances cover may equal or exceed that of prefire levels within several years [65]. Cascade barberry cover 9 years after slash burning near Oakridge, Oregon, surpassed that of adjacent unburned plots [83].

Cascade barberry abundance may not peak until mid- to late seral stages, particularly after hot fires [32]. Recovery can be slow after moderate to hot fires that damage or kill portions of underground rhizomes. Few Cascade barberry were present by the third growing season after a moderate fire in coastal British Columbia [58].

Recovery of Cascade barberry after July, 1970 wildfires in North Cascades National Park was as follows [65]:

Site197119721974
Frequency (%)Cover (%)Frequency (%)Cover (%)Frequency (%)Cover (%)
144.0—40.00.132.00.6
282.61.682.62.382.63.4
390.30.1683.92.283.94.9

Fire Regimes

Fire intervals in Douglas-fir-western hemlock forest inhabited by Cascade barberry commonly range from 137 to 320 years [1,71]. Fire intervals in other forest types occupied by Cascade barberry have been estimated as follows in Desolation Peaks, Washington [1]:

Forest typeFire interval (years)
Ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir52
Lodgepole pine-Douglas-fir76
Douglas-fir-grand fir93
Douglas-fir-Pacific silver fir108

Fire can produce gaps in old-growth redwood forests which are conducive to Cascade barberry growth [60].

For additional fire regime information, search FEIS for this species by entering the species name on the Advanced Search page and selecting “Fire Regime” as the publication type.

Fire Management Considerations

Timber harvest: Cascade barberry commonly exhibits dramatic reductions soon after timber harvest and subsequent slash fires in western hemlock-western redcedar-Douglas-fir forests of the Cascade Ranges, but then often undergoes a dramatic recovery [32]. In some areas, Cascade barberry cover has tripled during the first 5 years after logging and slash fires [17]. However, initial recovery may be fairly slow on some sites [91]. Posttreatment cover is presumably related to a number of factors including fire intensity and severity, season of fire, and site characteristics. Cascade barberry commonly reaches greatest abundance during secondary succession [49]. Abundance peaked at 30 to 40 years after clearcutting, broadcast burning, and planting in western hemlock-Douglas-fir forests of the western Cascades [79]. Posttreatment recovery was as follows [79]:

Years since treatmentPercent cover
21.88
55.04
104.22
159.48
206.98
3022.18
4020.97
Undisturbed old growth11.52

Posttreatment response of Cascade barberry has been documented in a number of other studies [7,16,17,27,79,91].

Fuels: Many Cascade barberry communities are characterized by low to medium fuel levels [4].

Prescribed fire: Prescribed fire in Pacific rhododendron-Cascade barberry communities can greatly increase herb and shrub production [26].

Cascade barberry response to clearcutting and spring or fall burning in a Douglas-fir-western redcedar-western hemlock forest, western British Columbia

Source

Lafferty, R. R. 1972. Regeneration and plant succession as related to fire intensity on clear-cut logged areas in coastal cedar-hemlock type: an interim report. Internal Report BC-33. Victoria, BC: Department of the Environment, Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forest Research Centre. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Lab, Missoula, MT. 129 p. [58].

Season/Severity Classification

  • Plot 6 - May 22, 1969/high
  • Plot 7 - September 9, 1968/moderate

Study Location

The study site was located approximately 33 miles (53 km) east of Vancouver and 14 miles (22 km) north of Mission City, British Columbia.

Prefire Vegetative Community

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) dominated the overstory, with scattered western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and western white pine (Pinus monticola) on the south and west aspects, and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western redcedar on the north and east aspects. Cascade barberry (Mahonia nervosa), red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), willow (Salix spp.), mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis), vine maple (Acer circinatum), alder (Alnus spp.), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), red and ovalleaf huckleberry (Vaccinium parviflorum, V. ovalifolium), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), trailing blackberry (R. ursinus), salal (Gaultheria shallon), fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), deer fern (Blechum spicant), and mosses were common in the prefire community.

Target Species Phenological State

Not reported.

Site Description

  • Elevation: 500 feet (152 m)
  • Parent materials: Bedrock was composed of quartz diorite and diorite, overlain with glacial till, outwash, and minor lacustrine and aeolian deposits.
  • Soils: Mixture of colluvium, loess, and ablation till; loamy with mixed gravel throughout.
  • Climate: Marine and cool. No distinct dry season. Average of 203 frost-frees days per year.

Fire Description

VariablePlot 6Plot 7
Rate of spread (ft/min)2215
Residence time (min)8550
Total fuel loading (g/m2)15,84030,308
Energy released (cal/m2 x 1,000)22,70945,799
Initial duff weight (g/m2)6,70010,000
Residual duff weight (g/m2)3,7506,710
% duff reduction by weight4433
Average initial fuel (g/m2 x 1,000)8.32220.321
Average initial loading (g/m2 x 1,000)15.02230.308
Fuel consumed (g/m2 x 1,000)3.0587.946
Total energy (cal/m2 x 1,000,000)22.709 x 1045.799 x 10
Percent moisture of slash prior to ignitionPlot 6Plot 7
Fine fuel (0.04-2.5 in.) (0.01-1.0 cm)12.517.4
Medium fuel (0.43-3.9 in.) (1.1-10 cm)6.616.3
Large fuel (4.0 in. or >) (10.1 cm or >)40.321.4
Percent moisture of organic fuel components prior to ignitionPlot 6Plot 7
Litter21.811.8
Fermentation102.7146.1
Humus120.8197.8

Fire Effects on Target Species

Cascade barberry recovery was as follows:

YearPlot 6Plot 7
Frequency (%)Canopy cover (%)Frequency (%)Canopy cover (%)
1968 (prefire)49.06.9——
1969 (postfire)11.41.16.80.3
1970——6.80.2
19711.1—6.80.6

On plot 7, Cascade barberry had not regained vigor within 3 years after fire.

Fire Management Implications

Cascade barberry and other shrubs are more likely to dominate early seral stages after fires of low intensity. Damage or destruction of underground regenerative structures is more probable after severe fires and can result in a slow recovery. Shrubs in general are less severely harmed by fires in early spring or late fall when carbohydrate reserves are still concentrated in the roots than by fires occurring during growth periods.

Federal Status

None

Other Status

None

Importance to Wildlife and Livestock

In many parts of the Pacific Northwest, Douglas-fir-western hemlock/Cascade barberry and western hemlock/Cascade barberry-salal habitat types provide important big game wintering areas [43,85]. Stands often offer good structural diversity and remain relatively snow-free [43]. However, where dense shrub thickets develop, big game use may be limited [42]. Western hemlock/Cascade barberry-Oregon oxalis and western hemlock/Cascade barberry-deerfoot vanillaleaf types serve as big game summer range [43].

Browse: In some areas, Cascade barberry is browsed by black-tailed deer [12,87]. In other locations it is seldom used [45]. Harcombe [37] reported moderate use of Cascade barberry by Roosevelt elk during winter but not in the spring or summer [37]. Various small mammals feed extensively on the foliage. It is, for example, an extremely important dietary component of the white-footed vole in the Coast Ranges of Oregon [88]. Cascade barberry comprised 32 percent of the vole's diet in February but declined to 17 percent by June.

The value of Cascade barberry browse to domestic livestock is apparently low in most locations. Utilization by domestic sheep in the Cascade Ranges in Washington may reach 6.8 to 23.7 percent [49]. The fruits are readily eaten by many small birds [63] and mammals. In some areas, black-tailed deer also eat the fruits [12]. The nectar of several species within the genus Berberis is favored by the Anna's hummingbird [55].

Palatability and Nutritional Value

Cascade barberry browse is relatively low in palatability to most big game species and domestic livestock [49,67]. The fruit is palatable to a wide range of birds and mammals.

Browse: The nutrient content of Cascade barberry browse has been documented as follows [76]:

NutrientAverage percent by weight
StemFoliage
N0.440.85
P0.100.12
Mg0.050.09
Ca0.290.24
Na0.0040.002
K0.510.87

Nutrient content of fruit is listed below [70,94]:

NutrientNutrient content per gram dry weight
kjoule x 100015.86
Calories3.79
Protein (g)0.18
Carbohydrates (g)0.71
Ash (g)0.04
Lipid (g)0.08
Ca (mg)1.91
Fe (mg)0.03
Mg (mg)0.85
Zn (mg)0.05
NutrientPercent dry weight
Carbohydrates78.0
Fat1.7
Ash7.4
N1.6
P0.5
K2.7
Ca0.2
Mg0.3
Na0

Cover Value

Cascade barberry presumably provides cover for small birds and mammals. The diverse structure of western hemlock/Cascade barberry-salal types provides good big game hiding cover [2]. Pacific silver fir/Cascade barberry and western hemlock/Cascade barberry-Oregon oxalis communities offer good thermal cover for deer and elk [41,43].

Value for Rehabilitation or Restoration of Disturbed Sites

Cascade barberry can be easily propagated from seed and from rhizome or stem cuttings [15,75,80]. However, plants may be slow to establish [56]. Detailed information on propagation techniques is available [15,75,80,81].

Other Uses

Cascade barberry fruits are tart but edible [35]. Native peoples of the Pacific Northwest traditionally ate the fruits and made medicinal teas from the boiled roots [35,70]. Dyes for baskets were also obtained from the roots [35].

Cascade barberry is a popular ornamental. It is well suited for shady locations and is widely planted in gardens throughout the Pacific Northwest. Its attractive foliage and short stature make it a particularly effective border plant [56]. Although it multiplies well under cultivation, it does not form dense thickets. Foliage often turns a striking reddish-purple in winter after exposure to cold temperatures [81].

Other Management Considerations

Timber harvest: Cascade barberry commonly persists on cutover sites [54,58]. In many parts of British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest, it assumes prominence in brushfields made up of such species as salal, bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), blackberries and raspberries (Rubus spp.), fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.), and willows (Salix spp.) [43,54]. Brushfield species may compete with conifer regeneration in some locations [43].

Biomass: The green weight of Cascade barberry has been estimated at 130 pounds per acre (145 kg/ha) in certain western hemlock types of Oregon [43].

Grazing: Grazing by domestic sheep apparently has little effect on Cascade barberry [49].

Chemical control: Percent frequency following herbicide applications combined with mechanical treatment or fire in central coastal Oregon was as follows [51]:

Treatment typePretreatmentPosttreatment
Glyphosate13—
Spray and burn133
Spray and crush9—

The effects of various herbicides on Berberis spp. have been considered in detail [10].

Table A1— Forest and range ecosystems, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) physiographic regions, Kuchler plant associations, Society for American Foresters (SAF) forest cover types, and Society for Rangeland Management (SRM) rangeland cover types in which this species occurs.

Forest and Range Ecosystems (Garrison et al. 1977)

  • FRES20 Douglas-fir
  • FRES21 Ponderosa pine
  • FRES22 Western white pine
  • FRES23 Fir - spruce
  • FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
  • FRES27 Redwood
  • FRES28 Western hardwoods

BLM Physiographic Regions (Bernard and Brown 1977)

  • 1 Northern Pacific Border
  • 2 Cascade Mountains
  • 3 Southern Pacific Border

Kuchler Plant Associations (Kuchler 1964)

  • K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
  • K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
  • K005 Mixed conifer forest
  • K006 Redwood forest
  • K007 Red fir forest
  • K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
  • K026 Oregon oakwoods
  • K029 California mixed evergreen forest
  • K030 California oakwoods

SAF Cover Types (Eyre 1980)

  • 207 Red fir
  • 211 White fir
  • 213 Grand fir
  • 215 Western white pine
  • 221 Red alder
  • 224 Western hemlock
  • 225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
  • 226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
  • 227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
  • 228 Western redcedar
  • 229 Pacific Douglas-fir
  • 230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
  • 231 Port-Orford cedar
  • 232 Redwood
  • 233 Oregon white oak
  • 234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
  • 244 Pacific ponderosa - Douglas-fir
  • 246 California black oak
  • 247 Jeffrey pine
  • 249 Canyon live oak

SRM Rangeland Cover Types (Shiflet 1994)

  • No entry

1. Agee, James K.; Finney, Mark; DeGouvenain, Roland. 1990. Forest fire history of Desolation Peak, Washington. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 350-356. [11035]

2. Agee, James K.; Kertis, Jane. 1987. Forest types of the North Cascades National Park Service Complex. Canadian Journal of Botany. 65: 1520-1530. [6327]

3. Atzet, Thomas. 1979. Description and classification of the forests of the upper Illinois River drainage of southwestern Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 211 p. Dissertation. [6452]

4. Atzet, Thomas; Wheeler, David L. 1982. Historical and ecological perspectives on fire activity in the Klamath Geological Province of the Rogue River and Siskiyou National Forests. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 16 p. [6252]

5. Atzet, Thomas; Wheeler, David L. 1984. Preliminary plant associations of the Siskiyou Mountain Province. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 278 p. [9351]

6. Atzet, Tom; Wheeler, David; Smith, Brad; [and others]. 1985. The tanoak series of the Siskiyou region of southwest Oregon (Part 2). Forestry Intensified Research. 6(4): 7-10. [8594]

7. Bailey, Arthur Wesley. 1966. Forest associations and secondary succession in the southern Oregon Coast Range. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 166 p. Thesis. [5786]

8. Bailey, Arthur W.; Poulton, Charles E. 1968. Plant communities and environmental interrelationships in a portion of the Tillamook Burn, northwestern Oregon. Ecology. 49(1): 1-13. [6232]

9. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

10. Bovey, Rodney W. 1977. Response of selected woody plants in the United States to herbicides. Agric. Handb. 493. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 101 p. [8899]

11. Brockway, Dale G.; Topik, Christopher; Hemstrom, Miles A.; Emmingham, William H. 1985. Plant association and management guide for the Pacific silver fir zone: Gifford Pinchot National Forest. R6-Ecol-130a. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 122 p. [525]

12. Brown, Ellsworth R. 1961. The black-tailed deer of western Washington. Biological Bulletin No. 13. [Place of publication unknown]: Washington State Game Commission. 124 p. [8843]

13. Carlton, Gary C. 1988. The structure and dynamics of red alder communities in the central Coast Range of western Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 173 p. Thesis. [10549]

14. Clary, Warren P. 1983. Overstory-understory relationships: spruce-fir forests. In: Bartlett, E. T.; Betters, David R., eds. Overstory-understory relationships in Western forests. Western Regional Research Publication No. 1. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University Experiment Station: 9-12. [3310]

15. Durand, Herbert K. 1972. Texas mahonia - a neglected economic plant. Economic Botany. 26(4): 319-325. [10483]

16. Dyrness, C. T. 1965. The effect of logging and slash burning on understory vegetation in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest. Res. Note PNW-31. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 13 p. [4939]

17. Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Early stages of plant succession following logging and burning in the western Cascades of Oregon. Ecology. 54(1): 57-69. [7345]

18. Dyrness, C. T.; Franklin, J. F.; Moir, W. H. 1974. A preliminary classification of forest communities in the central portion of the western Cascades in Oregon. Bulletin No. 4. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, Ecosystem Analysis Studies, Coniferous Forest Biome. 123 p. [8480]

19. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

20. Fonda, R. W. 1979. Fire resilient forests of Douglas-fir in Olympic National Park: a hypothesis. In: Linn, Robert M., ed. Proceedings, 1st conference on scientific research in the National Parks, Vol. 2; 1976 November 9-12; New Orleans, LA. NPS Transactions and Proceedings No. 5. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: 1239-1242. [6698]

21. Franklin, Jerry Forest. 1966. Vegetation and soils in the subalpine forests of the southern Washington Cascade Range. Pullman, WA: Washington State University. 132 p. Thesis. [10392]

22. Franklin, Jerry F. 1979. Vegetation of the Douglas-fir region. In: Heilman, Paul E.; Anderson, Harry W.; Baumgartner, David M., eds. Forest soils of the Douglas-fir region. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension Service: 93-112. [8207]

23. Franklin, Jerry F. 1983. Ecology of noble fir. In: Oliver, Chadwick Dearing; Kenady, Reid M., eds. Proceedings of the biology and management of true fir in the Pacific Northwest symposium; 1981 February 24-26; Seattle-Tacoma, WA. Contribution No. 45. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, College of Forest Resources: 59-69. [7783]

24. Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 417 p. [961]

25. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

26. Garrison, George A.; Smith, Justin G. 1974. Habitat of grazing animals. In: Cramer, Owen P., ed. Environmental effects of forest residues management in the Pacific Northwest: A state-of-knowledge compendium. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-24. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: P-1 to P-10. [7164]

27. Gashwiler, Jay S. 1970. Further study of conifer seed survival in a western Oregon clearcut. Ecology. 51(5): 849-854. [13081]

28. Green, R. N.; Courtin, P. J.; Klinka, K.; [and others]. 1984. Site diagnosis, tree species selection, and slashburning guidelines for the Vancouver Forest Region. Land Management Handbook Number 8. Abridged version. Burnaby, BC: Ministry of Forests, Vancouver Forest Region. 143 p. [9475]

29. Grier, Charles C.; Logan, Robert S. 1977. Old-growth Pseudotsuga menziesii communities of a western Oregon watershed: biomass distribution and production budgets. Ecological Monographs. 47: 373-400. [8762]

30. Habeck, James R. 1961. The original vegetation of the mid-Willamette Valley, Oregon. Northwest Science. 35: 65-77. [11419]

31. Hall, Frederick C. 1984. Ecoclass coding system for the Pacific Northwest plant associations. R6 Ecol 173-1984. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 83 p. [7650]

32. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3): 704-720. [6829]

33. Halpern, Charles B.; Franklin, Jerry F. 1989. Understory development in Pseudotsuga forests: multiple paths of succession. In: Ferguson, Dennis E.; Morgan, Penelope; Johnson, Frederic D., compilers. Proceedings--land classifications based on vegetation: applications for resource management; 1987 November 17-19; Moscow, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-257. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 293-297. [6961]

34. Halpern, Charles B.; Harmon, Mark E. 1983. Early plant succession on the Muddy River mudflow, Mount St. Helens, Washington. American Midland Naturalist. 110(1): 97-106. [8870]

35. Halverson, Nancy M., compiler. 1986. Major indicator shrubs and herbs on National Forests of western Oregon and southwestern Washington. R6-TM-229. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 180 p. [3233]

36. Halverson, Nancy M.; Topik, Christopher; Van Vickle, Robert. 1986. Plant association and management guide for the western hemlock zone: Mt. Hood National Forest. R6-ECOL-232A. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 111 p. [1068]

37. Harcombe, Andrew; Pendergast, Bruce; Petch, Bruce; Janz, Doug. 1983. Elk habitat management: Salmon River Valley. MOE Working Report 1. 83-05-10. Victoria, BC: Ministry of the Environment. 83 p. [9984]

38. Hawk, Glenn M. 1979. Vegetation mapping and community description of a small western Cascade watershed. Northwest Science. 53(3): 200-212. [8677]

39. Christensen, Norman L.; Muller, Cornelius H. 1975. Relative importance of factors controlling germination and seedling survival in Adenostoma chaparral. American Midland Naturalist. 93(1): 71-78. [9689]

40. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]

41. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Emmingham, W. H.; Halverson, Nancy M.; [and others]. 1982. Plant association and management guide for the Pacific silver fir zone, Mt. Hood and Willamette National Forests. R6-Ecol 100-1982a. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 104 p. [5784]

42. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Logan, Sheila E. 1986. Plant association and management guide: Siuslaw National Forest. R6-Ecol 220-1986a. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 121 p. [10321]

43. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Logan, Sheila E.; Pavlat, Warren. 1987. Plant association and management guide: Willamette National Forest. R6-Ecol 257-B-86. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 312 p. [13402]

44. Hines, William Wester. 1971. Plant communities in the old-growth forests of north coastal Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 146 p. Thesis. [10399]

45. Hines, William W.; Land, Charles E. 1974. Black-tailed deer and Douglas-fir regeneration in the Coast Range of Oregon. In: Black, Hugh C., ed. Wildlife and forest management in the Pacific Northwest: Proceedings of a symposium; 1973 September 11-12; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, School of Forestry, Forest Research Laboratory: 121-132. [7999]

46. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1964. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 2: Salicaceae to Saxifragaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 597 p. [1166]

47. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

48. Huff, Mark Hamilton. 1984. Post-fire succession in the Olympic Mountains, Washington: forest vegetation, fuels, and avifauna. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 235 p. Dissertation. [9248]

49. Ingram, Douglas C. 1931. Vegetative changes and grazing use on Douglas-fir cut-over land. Journal of Agricultural Research. 43(5): 387-417. [8877]

50. Kartesz, John T.; Kartesz, Rosemarie. 1980. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume II: The biota of North America. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; in confederation with Anne H. Lindsey and C. Richie Bell, North Carolina Botanical Garden. 500 p. [6954]

51. Kelpsas, B. R. 1978. Comparative effects of chemical, fire, and machine site preparation in an Oregon coastal brushfield. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 97 p. Thesis. [6986]

52. Kessell, Stephen R. 1979. Comparison of community stratification methods in Mount Rainier National Park and Glacier National Park. Unpublished preliminary report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Lab, Missoula, MT. 154 p. [6678]

53. Kienholz, Raymond. 1929. Revegetation after logging and burning in the Douglas-fir region of western Washington. Illinois State Academy of Science. 21: 94-108. [8764]

54. Klinka, K.; Krajina, V. J.; Ceska, A.; Scagel, A. M. 1989. Indicator plants of coastal British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. 288 p. [10703]

55. Kohn, H.; Hatheway, W. H.; Witt, J. A. 1979. Mahonia `Arthur Menzies' supercools--probably. University of Washington Arboretum Bulletin. 42(4): 7-9. [10332]

56. Kruckeberg, A. R. 1982. Gardening with native plants of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 252 p. [9980]

57. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]

58. Lafferty, R. R. 1972. Regeneration and plant succession as related to fire intensity on clear-cut logged areas in coastal cedar-hemlock type: an interim report. Internal Report BC-33. Victoria, BC: Department of the Environment, Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forest Research Centre. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Lab, Missoula, MT. 129 p. [9985]

59. Lee, William R. 1958. Pollination studies on low-bush blueberries. Journal of Economic Entomology. 51: 544-545. [9180]

60. Lenihan, James M. 1990. Forest ass. of Little Lost Man Creek, Humboldt Co., CA: reference-level in the hierarchical structure of old-growth coastal redwood vegetation. Madrono. 37(2): 69-87. [10673]

61. Long, James N. 1977. Trends in plant species diversity associated with development in a series of Pseudotsuga menziesii/Gaultheria shallon stands. Northwest Science. 51(2): 119-130. [10152]

62. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]

63. Martin, Alexander C.; Zim, Herbert S.; Nelson, Arnold L. 1951. American wildlife and plants. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 500 p. [4021]

64. McCain, John W., Hennen, Joe F. 1982. Is the taxonomy of Berberis and Mahonia (Berberidaceae) supported by their rust pathogens Cumminsiella santa sp. nov. and other Cumminsiella. Systematic Botany. 7(1): 48-59. [10286]

65. Miller, Margaret M.; Miller, Joseph W. 1976. Succession after wildfire in the North Cascades National Park complex. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference: Pacific Northwest; 1974 October 16-17; Portland, OR. No. 15. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 71-83. [6574]

66. Minore, Don. 1972. A classification of forest environments in the South Umpqua Basin. Res. Pap. PNW-129. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 28 p. [1660]

67. Mitchell, John E. 1983. Overstory-understory relationships: Douglas-fir forests. In: Bartlett, E. T.; Betters, David R., eds. Overstory-understory relationships in western forests. Western Regional Res. Publ. No. 1. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University Experiment Station: 27-34. [3314]

68. Moir, W. H.; Hobson, F. D.; Hemstrom, M.; Franklin, J. F. 1979. Forest ecosystems of Mount Rainier National Park. In: Linn, Robert M., ed. Proceedings, 1st conference on scientific research in the National Parks: Vol I; 1976 Nov. 9-12; New Orleans, LA. National Park Service Transactions and Proceedings Series No. 5. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: 201-207. [1674]

69. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]

70. Norton, H. H.; Hunn, E. S.; Martinsen, C. S.; Keely, P. B. 1984. Vegetable food products of the foraging economies of the Pacific Northwest. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 14(3): 219-228. [10327]

71. Ossinger, Mary C. 1983. The Pseudotsuga-Tsuga/Rhododendron community in the northeast Olympic Mountains. Bellingham, WA: Western Washington University. 50 p. Thesis. [11435]

72. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

73. Roach, A. W. 1952. Phytosociology of the Nash Crater lava flows, Linn County, Oregon. Ecological Monographs. 22: 169-193. [8759]

74. Roberts, Catherine Anne. 1975. Initial plant succession after brown and burn site preparation on an alder-dominated brushfield in the Oregon Coast Range. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 90 p. Thesis. [9786]

75. Rudolf, Paul O. 1974. Berberis L. barberry, mahonia. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 247-251. [7423]

76. Russel, D. W. 1974. The life history of vine maple on the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 167 p. Thesis. [4974]

77. Sawyer, John O.; Thornburgh, Dale A. 1977. Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Klamath Mountains. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 699-732. [685]

78. Sawyer, John O.; Thornburgh, Dale A.; Griffin, James R. 1977. Mixed evergreen forest. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 359-381. [7218]

79. Schoonmaker, Peter; McKee, Arthur. 1988. Species composition and diversity during secondary succession of coniferous forests in the western Cascade Mountains of Oregon. Forest Science. 34(4): 960-979. [6214]

80. Smith, Nevin. 1987. Growing natives: The mahonias, Part I. Fremontia. 14(4): 27-29. [10403]

81. Smith, Nevin. 1987. Growing natives: The mahonias, Part II. Fremontia. 15(1): 27-28. [10402]

82. Sonnenfeld, Nancy L. 1987. A guide to the vegetative communities at the Valley of the Giants, Outstanding Natural Area, northwestern Oregon, USA. Arboricultural Journal. 11: 209-225. [7453]

83. Steen, Harold K. 1966. Vegetation following slash fires in one western Oregon locality. Northwest Science. 40(3): 113-120. [5671]

84. Thornburgh, Dale. 1990. Picea breweriana Wats. Brewer spruce. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 181-186. [13383]

85. Topik, Christopher; Halverson, Nancy M.; Brockway, Dale G. 1986. Plant association and management guide for the western hemlock zone: Gifford Pinchot National Forest. R6-ECOL-230A. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 132 p. [2351]

86. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1994. Plants of the U.S.--alphabetical listing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 954 p. [23104]

87. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States, their erosion-control and wildlife values. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240]

88. Voth, Elver H.; Maser, Chris; Johnson, Murray L. 1983. Food habits of Arborimus albipes, the white-footed vole, in Oregon. Northwest Science. 57(1): 1-7. [9122]

89. Waring, R. H. 1969. Forest plants of the eastern Siskiyous: their environment and vegetational distribution. Northwest Science. 43(1): 1-17. [9047]

90. Whittaker, R. H. 1960. Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs. 30(3): 279-338. [6836]

91. Yerkes, Vern P. 1960. Occurrence of shrubs and herbaceous vegetation after clear cutting old-growth Douglas-fir. Res. Pap. PNW-34. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [8937]

92. Zinke, Paul J. 1977. The redwood forest and associated north coast forests. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 679-698. [7212]

93. Zobel, Donald B.; McKee, Arthur; Hawk, Glenn M.; Dyrness, C. T. 1976. Relationships of environment to composition, structure, and diversity of forest communities of the central western Cascades of Oregon. Ecological Monographs. 46: 135-156. [8767]

94. King, R. Dennis; Bendell, James F. 1982. Foods selected by blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus fuliginosus). Canadian Journal of Zoology. 60(12): 3268-3281. [10169]

95. Ahrendt, Leslie Walter Allan. 1961. Berberis and Mahonia. A taxonomic revision. Journal of the Linnean Society of London. 57(369): 1-410. [9098]

96. Moore, Michael. 1979. Medicinal plants of the Mountain West. Santa Fe, NM: Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 p. [12905]

97. Atzet, Thomas; McCrimmon, Lisa A. 1990. Preliminary plant associations of the southern Oregon Cascade Mountain Province. Grants Pass, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Siskiyou National Forest. 330 p. [12977]

98. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090]

99. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]

100. Kartesz, J. T.; The Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2011. North American plant atlas, [Online]. Chapel Hill, NC: The Biota of North America Program (Producer). Available: http://www.bonap.org/MapSwitchboard.html. [Maps generated from Kartesz, J. T. 2010. Floristic synthesis of North America, Version 1.0. Biota of North America Program (BONAP). [In press]. [84789]

101. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. 50 CFR Part 17: Plant taxa for listing as endangered or threatened species; notice of review--September 30, 1993. Federal Register. 58(188): 51144-51190. [23816]

102. Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 2012. Flora of North America north of Mexico, [Online]. Flora of North America Association (Producer). Available: http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1. [36990]

103. The Jepson Herbarium. 2012. Jepson online interchange for California floristics, [Online]. In: Jepson Flora Project. Berkeley, CA: University of California, The University and Jepson Herbaria (Producers). Available: http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/interchange.html [70435]

Last updated September 9, 2025
Return to top
Share your website feedback