Cadaghi
Suggested Citation: Rockwood, Donald L.; Tamang, Bijay; Rucks, Phillip; Ellis, Martin F.; Lamb, Elizabeth; Winandy, Jerrold E.; Gribbins, Neil R. 2026. Cadaghi (Corymbia torelliana). In: McNulty, Steven; Callaham, Mac, Jr., project co-leads. Silvics of North America. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service; National Forestry Commission of Mexico, collaborators. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. https://doi.org/10.2737/sna.corymbia.torelliana.
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| Distribution and Environmental Associations |
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| Regeneration and Management |
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| Genetics |
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| Insects and Diseases |
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| Wildland Fire |
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| Drought |
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| Additional Disturbances |
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| Goods and Services |
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| Urban Forestry |
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- Steven McNulty, Project Lead (USDA Forest Service)
- Mac A. Callaham, Jr., Program Manager (USDA Forest Service)
- Rachel Cook, Principal Investigator (North Carolina State University)
- Susan Iott, U.S. Project Coordinator (Three Vowels, LLC)
- Sébastien Meunier, Canadian Project Coordinator (Canadian Forest Service)
- Cynthia F. Moser, Managing Editor (Three Vowels, LLC)
- Michael Gavazzi, Content Coordinator (USDA Forest Service)
- Brody Hall, Business Administrator (North Carolina State University)
Corymbia torelliana is identified as an introduced and invasive nonnative species for regions of North America. Management and utilization of this species should be carried out with caution in accordance with local, regional, and national regulations. Please note the following classifications present at the time of publication:
- Federal Government Documents
- United States: Listed as introduced and invasive (Category D2) by the U.S. Geological Survey’s “United States Register of Introduced and Invasive Species” (US-RIIS; Simpson et al., 2022)
- Canada: None available at this time
- Mexico: None available at this time
- National (nongovernmental) Assessments
- None available at this time
The species is considered to be potentially invasive by the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (2018).
Pesticide Disclaimer
This publication/database reports research involving pesticides. It does not contain recommendations for their use, nor does it imply that the uses discussed here have been registered. All uses of pesticides must be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal agencies before they can be recommended.
CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife—if they are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide containers.
Cadaghi (Corymbia torelliana; formerly Eucalyptus torelliana), a native of northern Queensland, Australia, was grown in the 1980s by the Florida Division of Forestry in small quantities because of its ornamental properties and had been considered of limited potential in Florida (Rockwood, 2012). Now, however, this fast-growing, straight, densely foliated tree with relatively high wood density is widely planted as windbreaks and has potential for commercial plantations producing a range of products.
Matching cadaghi to Florida’s diverse weather and soils is challenging. Climatic regions based on average low temperatures or numbers of freezes provide some broad guidelines, but freeze aberrations and extended cold periods impact its freeze susceptibility at a young age. Unpredictable, extended dry spells during summer constrain successful planting and early growth. In these climatic regions, soils include infertile sands, heavy clays, limestone derivatives, and organics. In an understocked commercial plantation (1,237 trees ha-1 [501·acre-1]) on former citrus beds (fig. 1), cadaghi grew rapidly, reaching 123 t ha-1 (55 tons acre-1) in 4 years. Short-rotation woody crop systems may increase productivity and extend uses beyond conventional mulchwood to products such as biochar, energywood, and medium-density fiberboard. Other possible applications include honey production, windbreaks, dendroremediation, and carbon sequestration. Cadaghi is especially used in windbreaks around citrus groves, vegetable fields, and even homes in central and southern Florida (figs. 2, 3). It may be paired with rose gum (Eucalyptus grandis) in two-row windbreaks to maximize windbreak effectiveness, and it may sequester as much carbon as rose gum. Collaborative tree breeding has produced cadaghi with the necessary growth, freeze resilience, and site tolerance for peninsular Florida and similar areas. Seed based on breeding values for these traits is available from first- and second- generation cadaghi seedling seed orchards (fig. 1).
Figure 1—Cadaghi in (A) a first-generation seedling orchard near Frostproof, Florida, and (B) a commercial plantation near Fort Pierce, Florida. Courtesy photos by D.L. Rockwood.
Figure 2—Cadaghi windbreak near Plant City, Florida, at (A) 5 months and (B) 39 months. Courtesy photos by D.L. Rockwood.
Figure 3—Two views of an 11-year-old cadaghi windbreak near Frostproof, Florida. Courtesy photo by D.L. Rockwood.
Distribution
Cadaghi is endemic to northern Queensland, Australia, occurring along rainforest margins in a narrow band 48 to 80 km (30 to 50 miles) wide stretching from 16 to 19° S (Hodel, 2012). It has been widely planted as an ornamental and in amenity plantings in southeast Queensland, particularly in Brisbane and surrounding suburbs (Hodel, 2012; Stokoe et al., 2005).
Cadaghi is widely cultivated in warm areas around the world for timber, windbreaks, and landscaping including Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Taiwan, China, Fiji, Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, Hawaii, California, and Florida (Andreu et al., 2009; Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants, 2011; Hill and Johnson, 1995; Hillis and Brown, 1978).
Broad climatic regions guide the deployment of cadaghi and two fast-growing eucalypts (cabbage gum [E. amplifolia] and rose gum) in Florida (figs. 4, 5). From southern into central Florida, cadaghi tolerates typical winter conditions and grows well across sites, especially when irrigated on deep sands. Extended cold periods impact freeze susceptibility at young ages. Unpredictable, extended dry spells make Florida’s summer rainfall climate difficult for successful planting and early growth.
Figure 4—Current distribution of cadaghi using point data from EDDMapS, iNaturalist, and national forest inventory data from the United States (U.S. Department of Agriculture [USDA], Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis). USDA Forest Service cartography by Jacob Fraser.
Figure 5—Comparison of growing regions in Florida, based on climate, for three fast-growing species: cadaghi, cabbage gum, and rose gum. Courtesy of Rockwood and Peter (2018).
While central and southern Florida are likely to be the future primary regions of cadaghi deployment, northeastern Florida could become a planting region as more freeze-resilient genotypes become available and freezes are less frequent and cold.
Environmental Associations
The climate in cadaghi’s native range (30 to 760 m [100 to 2,500 feet] elevation) is warm-humid tropical with a distinct summer maximum rainfall pattern (Hodel, 2012). Mean annual rainfall is about 1500 mm (60 inches) with the maximum summer monthly rainfall about 400 mm (16 inches). Mean maximum temperature for the warmest summer months is about 30 °C (86 °F) while the mean minimum in the coolest winter months is 12 to 15 °C (54 to 59 °F). Humidity is typically high, and frosts are rare but occur in more inland and higher elevations of the range.
The southwestern portion of cadaghi’s potential range in Florida, where elevations change gradually from sea level to 6 m (20 feet) and occasionally 18 m (60 feet), is, as documented for rose gum, humid and subtropical with long, rainy, and warm summers and dry and mild winters with potentially damaging freezes (Meskimen and Francis, 1990). Average annual rainfall is 1270 to 1400 mm (50 to 55 inches), with 180 to 200 mm (7 to 8 inches) per month during the June to September rainy season, and an unreliable 50 mm (2 inches) per month during the November to April or May dry season. Daily maximum temperatures from late May to September typically exceed 32 °C (90 °F) but rarely reach 38 °C (100 °F). During the coldest month, the average daily maximum and minimum temperatures are near 24 °C (75 °F) and 11 °C (52 °F), respectively, but strong cold fronts often change warm afternoons into freezing nights. Over 30 winters, the average lowest temperature was -4.4 °C (24 °F). More recent temperature, rainfall, and elevation characterization for cadaghi is provided in table 1.
Table 1—Temperature, precipitation, and elevation ranges for cadaghi in North America
Summary statistics | Mean annual temperature in °C (°F) | Annual precipitation in millimeters (inches) | Elevation in meters (feet) |
Minimum | 20.3 (69) | 580 (23) | Sea level |
Lower 25 percent | 23.1 (74) | 1110 (44) | 10 (40) |
Median | 26.1 (79) | 1330 (52) | 30 (90) |
Mean | 25.1 (77) | 1340 (53) | 130 (440) |
Upper 25 percent | 26.9 (80) | 1420 (56) | 100 (350) |
Maximum | 28.0 (82) | 3150 (124) | 2990 (9,810)
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In northern Queensland, Australia, cadaghi typically grows in moist forests in and on the margins of rainforests on the seaward slopes from the coastal plains up to the top of the mountains to the west. Soils are relatively deep, sandy loams with good drainage, adequate soil moisture, and good moisture retention (Hodel, 2012).
In Florida, cadaghi plantations may be established, as are rose gum plantations, in southwestern Florida’s nearly flat terrain, locally known as palmetto prairie (Meskimen and Francis, 1990). The soils are mainly sands, strongly acid, poorly drained, and underlain by spodic horizons commonly impervious to root penetration and water drainage. High seasonal rainfall coupled with flat topography and low elevation typically results in high water tables, shallow root zones, and local inundation during the rainy season. During the dry season, these sandy soils rapidly become moisture deficient. Elsewhere in Florida, soils available for planting cadaghi range from sandy and infertile to heavy clay, limestone, and organic.
Sexual Reproduction
Flowers are staminous and arranged in several showy terminal panicles (Hodel, 2012) (fig. 6). Panicles are usually 13 to 18 cm (5 to 7 inches) long. Individual flowers are approximately 5 cm (2 inches) wide and 2.5 cm (1 inch) long. A few flowers may open in December, but generally flower buds often persist on the tree. Pollination is done mostly by insects. The fruit are sessile, woody, 9 to 15 mm by 4 to 8 mm (0.35 to 0.6 inch by 0.15 to 0.3 inch), mostly urn-shaped or ovoid to nearly globular, smooth capsules about 1.3 cm (0.5 inch) in diameter, with three valves (Hodel, 2012).
Figure 6—Cadaghi blooming in early May in Gainesville, Florida: (A) whole tree, (B) crown, and (C) upper crown. Courtesy photos by D.L. Rockwood.
In Florida, the seed capsules may be harvested quarterly in February, May, August, and November. Scattered loosely on a dry surface, capsule valves dry out, open, and release many very small, red-brown seeds (Hodel, 2012) (fig. 7). Seeds are usually dispersed around the trees by gravity, but long-distance dispersal by stingless bees occurs in Australia (Wallace et al. 2008).
Figure 7—Cadaghi seed capsules (A) on the tree, (B) harvested, (C) seed bagged, and (D) germinating. Courtesy photos by D.L. Rockwood.
Cadaghi is readily propagated from seeds, which germinate in 1 to 2 weeks (Elliot and Jones, 1986). Seed from fully mature capsules can immediately be sown by scattering them lightly over a pre-moistened, clean, disease-free, well-drained seed or potting mix. Kept moist at a temperature of 21 to 27 °C (70 to 80 °F) and protected from wind, dryness, and extreme cold and heat, they can be transplanted into individual containers to grow quickly and then moved up to larger containers to prevent poor root systems (Hodel, 2012).
For cadaghi windbreak plantings in central and southern Florida, TO08 seed are dried, sieved, purified, weighed, cataloged, packed in coin envelopes, and then stored in airtight containers at 4.4 to 5.5 °C (40 to 42 °F) with silica gel desiccant. Seed is taken from cold storage and germinated in 5 by 10 cm (2 by 4 inch) Ellepots (Ellepot; Denmark) in 45-cell trays in a greenhouse. The germination rate for stored seeds is about 72 percent. Seedlings about 15 cm (6 inches) tall are transplanted into 15-cm-deep nursery pots and can reach heights of 45 to 60 cm (1.5 to 2 feet) outdoors. Planting must coincide with summer rains to give sufficient time for seedlings to grow into hardy saplings before winter frosts (Rockwood et al., 2022c).
Asexual Reproduction
Cadaghi forms a lignotuber which can generate sprouts.
After harvest, cadaghi plantations may regenerate by coppicing, and two or three coppice rotations may be possible before replanting is necessary. In Florida, however, summer harvests (June to September) may reduce coppicing ability.
In its northern Queensland, Australia, range, several other eucalypts and numerous rainforest species occur with cadaghi (Boland et al., 1984).
Typical palmetto prairie ground cover in southern Florida includes saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) pineland threeawn (Aristida stricta), bluestem (Andropogon spp.), dwarf wax myrtle (Morella pusilla), wax myrtle (M. cerifera), gallberry (Ilex glabra), and dwarf live oak (Quercus minima), with the scattered sabal palm (Sabal palmetto), live oak (Q. virginiana), and longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) (Meskimen and Francis, 1990).
Commercial plantations of cadaghi in the southern Florida flatwoods require reduction of vegetative competition by double chopping or cross disking, then broadcasting 1.12 t ha-1 (0.5 ton acre-1) of ground rock phosphate, and finally bedding to elevate the seedlings above the standing water during the first rainy season. Chopping or disking and bedding with heavy equipment in the spring can kill most of the thick, fibrous, and deeply rooted saw palmetto rhizomes while the subsequent drought increases mortality. In addition, spring offers little time or moisture for weed competition to colonize the beds before summer planting starts. Planting at the beginning of the rainy season in June is advised (Rockwood and Peter, 2018).
The Spodosols of southern Florida impact tree root systems (Meskimen and Francis, 1990). Below a thin, sandy A1 horizon with limited nutrients and organic matter is a strongly leached A2 horizon of white, sterile sand that changes abruptly to a spodic horizon consisting of fine sand accreted with organic and aluminum compounds. This hardpan can cause a perched water table during the summer growing season and resist root access to the water table during the long dry season, which is stressful to young cadaghi.
While cadaghi and its hybrids are commercially planted in Australia (Bonora et al., 2020), commercial plantations of cadaghi in Florida are currently limited. A plantation on former citrus beds experienced poor growth on the edges and slightly depressed growth on top of the beds, suggesting that two off-center pairs of closely spaced rows is the most efficient planting configuration. The cadaghi still grew rapidly (see table A.1 in the Tree Growth and Stand Dynamics appendix and figure 1), as the green weight of this understocked stand (1,237 trees ha-1 [501·acre-1]) was predicted to increase by 40 percent to 123 t ha-1 (55 tons acre-1) from age 3 to 4 years. Tree diameter at breast height (DBH) at that time was in the ideal range for potential biochar production, a suggestion that short rotations of cadaghi may be ideal for that product (Rockwood et al., 2022a).
As a landscape tree in southern Florida, cadaghi is a large evergreen tree that can grow up to 30 m (100 feet) tall (Brown, 2014; Hodel, 2012) and over 20 m (64 feet) in windbreaks (table A.2 in the Tree Growth and Stand Dynamics appendix; Tamang et al., 2012). It forms a light to dense canopy with a pyramidal shape as a juvenile and develops an irregular crown as an adult. There are few crossing branches. Branches are retained all the way to the ground when planted in open conditions such as windbreaks (figs. 2, 3), but the trees tend to self-prune in commercial plantations (fig. 1). The bark is deciduous, with the trunk and major branches becoming smooth, often with a greenish pattern. Some gray to black bark may remain at the base of the trunk.
Management with Natural Regeneration
Natural regeneration is not practiced in Florida. Only a small number of scattered trees occur in natural areas in central and southern Florida. Weed competition is intense in natural areas and only a handful of seedlings survive and develop into mature trees.
Not applicable.
Management with Planted Regeneration
Despite their growth rate, cadaghi seedlings may compete poorly with weedy vegetation. In Florida, as with rose gum, cadaghi planting sites should be weed free, and the seedlings need 3 months reasonably free of competition to grow and dominate the site (Schonau et al., 1981, as cited by Meskimen and Francis, 1990). Post-planting weed control by directed herbicides and cultivation may be necessary through the second year after establishment.
Results to date suggest the following management for commercial planting of genetically improved cadaghi: site-appropriate preparation (e.g., bedding on wet sites) and fertilization, chemical or mechanical preplanting weed control or agroforestry (or a combination thereof), or dense planting in paired double rows (Rockwood and Peter, 2018).
Tending or Intermediate Management
Post-planting weed control is recommended to ensure cadaghi productivity. Weed control should be effective for at least 2 years after planting (Rockwood and Peter, 2018). Because of the sandy nature of Florida soils, planting must coincide with summer rains to meet the high moisture requirement for these fast-growing seedlings. This also provides sufficient time for seedlings to grow into hardy saplings before winter frosts.
Not practiced in Florida.
Not practiced in Florida.
Not practiced in Florida.
Not practiced in Florida.
No subspecies have been noted in C. torelliana.
Genetic Variation
While three cadaghi populations were similar at young ages (table A.3 in the Genetics appendix), superior genotypes were evident in each population in a study near Fort Pierce, Florida (Rockwood et al., 2022b). At 26 months, average tree height and survival varied among populations; Australian seedlots grew rapidly and had high survival. Within-population variability was large, with genotypes superior for essential traits in each population. Five Australian, three first-generation seedling seed orchard (SSO) TO08, and progenies of eight local Florida trees had above-average DBH and basal area per hectare for their population, with four of the Australian progenies notably less precocious. All three populations were chalcid resistant and survived better than rose gum and cabbage gum under intense weed competition. Superior genotypes make cadaghi viable for commercial use.
Transfer of current Florida cadaghi to freeze-frequent areas of the southeastern United States is limited due to a lack of necessary freeze resilience.
Cadaghi genetic improvement conducted in Florida since 2008 has used the tree improvement strategy followed for rose gum in Florida to develop SSOs (Rockwood, 2020). This inexpensive, effective strategy utilized short generation time and rapid growth to concurrently test provenances, progenies, and new, primarily single-tree accessions in one place, followed by early selection and use of pedigrees to minimize inbreeding and achieve rapid genetic gains.
Cadaghi seed for southern and central Florida is now available from first- and second-generation SSOs. The 2008 genetic base population (table A.4 in the Genetics appendix) included 960 trees from 29 trees in windbreaks in southern Florida. This tropical species demonstrated tolerance to freezing temperatures, and all 69 trees in the resulting SSO TO08 combine freeze tolerance with good growth and tree form. Twenty-five new Australian accessions were included in the second-generation base population that became TO12. Severe freezes made selection of four fast- growing, freeze-resilient cloning candidates possible. Collaborative genetic improvement is ongoing as each generation of selection enhances adaptation to local conditions, but new families should be imported to broaden the genetic base and minimize inbreeding depression.
Breeding values based on seven progeny tests in Florida have been predicted for five traits important for best deployment of cadaghi genotypes (table A.5 in the Genetics appendix). Collectively, these breeding values guide the selection of genotypes for individual applications. In tree basal area and plot basal area, which incorporate survival, breeding values indicate individual tree size and per hectare productivity, respectively. Regarding stem quality, on a scale of 1 (good) to 5 (poor), and freeze resilience, on a similar scale, breeding values rate tree form and freeze tolerance and ability to regrow vigorously afterwards, respectively. As for pest resistance, both on a scale of 0 (no incidence) to 1 (infected), breeding values reflect relative resistance to critical pests. The flowering breeding value assesses early flowering.
Genomic Resources for Forest Tree Species
Cadaghi has an estimated genome size of 390 MB, in contrast to rose gum’s much larger genome of 640 MB, but both have the same chromosome number (Butler et al., 2017). Using 15,360 sequence-based Diversity Array Technology (DArTseq) markers and a marker binning technique, a high-density linkage map was created to compare genome structure between two Corymbia species and rose gum using the reference genome. DArTseq genotyping yielded 6,554 and 6,323 markers segregating 1:1 from 1CT2-050 and 1CT2-018, respectively. Dominant markers made up the bulk of the total, with codominant SNP markers averaging 25 percent of the markers across each individual (Shamoon et al., 2024).
Large-scale genomic data discovery has been enabled by next-generation sequencing (NGS) to characterize the genomic data of Corymbia hybrids and the development of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers (Shamoon et al., 2024). About 11 GB raw data with 77.87 million reads were generated through the Illumina HiSeq platform. De novo assembly yielded contigs with an average length of 150 bp and a read map of up to 88.21 percent. Sequence similarity analyses and annotation of the contigs against the non-redundant protein (Nr) and Gene Ontology (GO) databases identified 548 GO annotations. The annotation of biochemical pathways resulted in 4,684 contigs assigned to 389 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) maps. A total of 10,501 SSRs were designed out of the 13,321 SSRs that were identified. Overall, this study enriches the genomic and microsatellite data in Corymbia.
In Australia, defoliation caused mainly by generalist insects such as caterpillars, grasshoppers, and beetles in young cadaghi was lowest at age 14 months and highest at age 20 months compared to other Corymbia taxa (Bonora et al., 2020). Necrosis caused by the pathogen Quambalaria pitereka was lowest in cadaghi. Pest incidence was influenced by environmental factors such as rainfall, temperature, and pest and disease occurrence. As elsewhere, however (e.g., California, where pests of Corymbia species are rare on cadaghi; Hodel, 2012), cadaghi in Florida appears to have no serious pests and diseases (table 2). Leaf cutting bees (Megachile spp.) have been seen actively clipping cadaghi leaves in some areas in southwestern Florida. As experienced with expanded planting of Corymbia hybrids in Australia (Lawson and McDonald, 2005), though, new pests could emerge over time.
Table 2—Significant insects and diseases of cadaghi, by relative impact and tree structure
Degree of impact | Roots | Bole (bark, phloem, and xylem) | Foliage, shoots, and twigs | Flowers, fruit, and seeds |
Greatest | N/A | N/A | Red-shouldered leaf beetle: Monolepta australis | N/A |
Moderate | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
Low | N/A | Pathogen: Quambalaria pitereka | Leaf cutting bees: Megachile spp. | N/A |
N/A: not applicable.
Cadaghi pests in Florida have relatively minor effects.
The authors found no supporting documentation for secondary interactions.
Deployment of seedlots with the best pest resistance breeding values (table A.5 in the Genetics appendix) minimizes current pest problems. As pests become more serious, two alternative strategies that may be followed are selection of resistant clones and crossing cadaghi with other Corymbia species that are resistant. For example, cadaghi’s high susceptibility to the red-shouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis) in Australia was not evident in various hybrids (Lawson and McDonald, 2005).
No fires have been observed in cadaghi plantings on southern Florida’s seasonally dry, flat palmetto prairies or other locations.
While no fires have occurred in cadaghi plantings in Florida, the trees are likely to regenerate by coppicing due to cadaghi’s lignotubers (Agee, 1996). Fire damage is likely minimal because of the thick bark.
The authors found no supporting documentation for secondary interactions.
Fire breaks in and around cadaghi plantings may afford fire protection. Fire management tools and wildfire prevention strategies used for other forest types in the State can be applied to cadaghi plantings.
Temperature increases and variability in seasonal precipitation expected in Florida through 2070 are likely to increase drought frequency and intensity (Vose et al., 2019), which in turn could impact the previously recommended summer planting of cadaghi.
Well-established cadaghi plantations are not likely to be impacted by Florida’s periodic droughts because root systems can access water from the shallow water table in central and southern Florida. Based on studies elsewhere, cadaghi’s drought tolerance is promising (Bonora et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2005; Lima et al., 2023). Cadaghi may conserve water through stomatal control of transpiration during droughts (Lima et al., 2023; Silva et al., 2016; Silva et al., 2017), and it was one of four Corymbia species demonstrating potential for Brazilian regions with water deficits (Rodrigues et al., 2024).
The authors found no supporting documentation for secondary interactions.
Commercial planting is best deferred until the start of the summer rainy season.
Three disturbances compiled by Meskimen and Francis (1990) are likely to be significant. The greatest threat to cadaghi seedling survival is limited soil moisture at and after planting. Frequent lightning in southwestern Florida, where cadaghi may be planted, may strike over 4 percent of the planted rose gum and kill more than 2 percent. Severe frost can be damaging to young trees. While there is a 10 percent hurricane probability for any given year and a severe hurricane could cause serious windthrow, recent hurricane exposure has demonstrated high resistance in cadaghi.
Please see preceding paragraph.
The authors found no supporting documentation for secondary interactions.
The moisture threat to young cadaghi survival can be allayed by delaying planting until summer rains resume. In areas of severe freeze risk, freeze-resilient genotypes are recommended.
Goods
Cadaghi wood is hard, heavy, pale brown, and straight grained but subject to gum veins, and is used in general construction (Hodel, 2012). It once had commercial timber value in Australia.
Market opportunities in Florida for cadaghi wood are now limited but could expand into biochar, engineered wood products, and other options (McGavin et al., 2013; Rockwood and Peter, 2018; Rockwood et al., 2022b; Rockwood et al., 2022c). Cadaghi has promise as a biochar feedstock and for sequestering carbon, comparing favorably with the commercial Polchar made from oak trees in Europe (Rockwood et al., 2020) (table A.6 in the Goods and Services appendix). Biochar production in southern Florida may foster planting of the more dense cadaghi (table A.7 in the Goods and Services appendix).
In preliminary testing of its suitability for medium-density fiberboard (MDF), genetic variation between and particularly within cadaghi trees affected its MDF potential (Rockwood et al., 2022c). Wood characteristics, refining system, and resin system influenced its suitability, with log specific gravity (SG), fines, MDF SG, and fiber length being most influential. A study using 4 percent phenol-formaldehyde resin detected considerable variation within species, minor variation within a tree, and some influence of basic wood characteristics. A second study involving three resins concluded that certain genotypes may be suitable and that resin type and rate and percentage of fines influenced MDF properties. Refining and MDF-making aspects have such major impacts on MDF properties that specific processing requirements may be needed to optimize MDF production from cadaghi genotypes. Proven material performance characteristics and properties are invaluable for usage as wood composites because these technologies can be adapted and modified to enhance the value-added high performance (Rosli et al., 2023; Stark and Cai, 2021; Winandy and Kamke, 2004). McGavin et al. (2013) found cadaghi to be a viable part of lightweight hardwood mixture for veneer- and fiber-based wood composites.
For ethanol and methanol production, higher wood density, lower moisture content, and higher extractives content are typically favored. There were differences between cadaghi of unknown genotypes for some of these properties (table A.7), which suggests that clonal deployment would also be advantageous in producing energy products. Similar variation in refined fiber characteristics also emphasized the importance of genetic variation in making other products.
Cadaghi’s main current use in central and southern Florida is windbreaks (Andreu et al., 2008; Andreu et al., 2009; Tamang et al., 2010; Tamang et al., 2012), which are typically planted around citrus groves to manage citrus canker (Xanthomonas citri ssp. citri) and vegetable farms to reduce physical abrasion to crops, control chemical drift, and minimize soil and nutrient loss. Because of their fast growth, cadaghi, rose gum, and cadaghi/rose gum windbreaks provide shelter to crops as early as 3 to 4 years and reach a height of about 18 m (60 feet) in 7 to 8 years. Assuming an effective protection distance of 10 times tree height, mature windbreaks can provide protection at least 180 m (600 feet) downwind. Since 2010, potted cadaghi seedlings from TO08 have been grown for agricultural, residential, and commercial windbreaks, privacy screening, tall visual barriers, and sound barriers along highways (figs. 2, 3).
The flowers of cadaghi are attractive to bees and therefore useful for honey production (Elliot and Jones, 1986). It produces abundant flowers four times a year in Florida. With the significant reduction in the number of citrus trees in Florida due to citrus greening, beekeepers are seeking other plants to support their honey bees.
Cadaghi may also be used as a “bridge crop” to convert lands infested with invasive species to agricultural uses. Planting trees at high density results in canopy closure in a few months, shading out understory plants in order to reintroduce native vegetation on landscapes infested with nonnative, invasive plant species such as cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica) (Tamang et al., 2008).
Cost-effective capture of many silvichemicals is critical to their commercial use. Steam pretreatment of wood chips of cadaghi yielded a multitude of components in condensate extracts, but no compound was in sufficient quantity to make separation and recovery commercially viable (Rockwood and Bowman, 2021; Rockwood et al., 2008). Capturing them as incidental byproducts of other wood processing may be an option.
Ecosystem Services
Plantations of cadaghi in Florida are likely to be dominated by the trees and have few other plants in the understory. For comparison, the low site preparation intensity and multiple age classes in operational, even-aged rose gum plantations in southern Florida support moderate groundcover and wildlife habitat diversity that mimics southern pine plantation systems. Saw palmetto is common in mature plantations and can produce harvestable berries that provide an annual nontimber benefit.
Cadaghi could provide carbon sequestration benefits. This nontimber ecosystem service can be enhanced if the trees are cultivated on sites with low initial carbon stocks (e.g., mined lands) and also used for renewable energy to replace fossil fuels. As an estimate of cadaghi’s potential, short-rotation rose gum on a reclaimed phosphate mine in Florida increased soil organic carbon 274 and 354 Mg C ha-1 (122 and 158 tons·acre-1) after 25 years and 50 years, respectively (Wullschleger et al., 2004). Adding this benefit to aboveground biomass production, profitability can be increased by up to about 25 percent, or up to about 70 percent if benefits of fossil fuel displacement are added, with key factors being carbon price, biomass price, and discount rate (Langholtz et al., 2009).
Commercial plantings of cadaghi in Florida are not likely to be used for recreation.
Cadaghi could also provide dendroremediation, an ecosystem service in which trees remove contaminants from soil or water (Rockwood et al., 2004). For example, rose gum irrigated with reclaimed water can extract over 300 kg of nitrate-N ha-1 year-1 (268 pounds·acre-1 year-1; Rockwood et al., 2001). Financial compensation for this ecosystem service can be increased if irrigation uses wastewater, providing both wood and removal of nitrate-N from reclaimed wastewater (Langholtz et al., 2005).
In southwestern Florida, cadaghi and rose gum are the two eucalypts seen more often, while rainbow gum (E. deglupta) and cadaghi are the principal eucalypts in urban landscapes in southeastern Florida (Brown, 2014). However, an assessment of nonnative plants in southern Florida lists cadaghi as a potentially invasive species (University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, 2018; see Cautionary Statement), and thus cadaghi is not recommended for landscape use in Florida. Cadaghi has been identified in urban settings elsewhere (e.g., southern California) including landscaped parks, arboretums, and natural areas, but the extent of its distribution is unknown.
Forests in Cities
Cadaghi’s presence in Florida’s urban natural forests is unknown.
Trees in Planted Urban Landscapes
Cadaghi’s potential invasiveness (noted earlier) restricts its planting, and no specific information is available about the extent of previous plantings.
If deployed and managed carefully, cadaghi could provide dendroremediation services (i.e., removal of contaminants and nutrients from urban soil or water; Rockwood and Peter, 2018; Rockwood et al., 2001; Rockwood et al., 2022b). Similarly, it could contribute to stormwater management, as it tolerates drought and flooding once established.
Genetic and silvicultural improvements with cadaghi have dramatically improved its productivity, but still more progress may be made through research in freeze resilience, growth, coppicing, pest resistance, and propagation.
Silvicultural enhancements are needed because of the infertility, low pH, and low organic matter of many available planting sites. Appropriate environmentally friendly amendments such as organic fertilizers and biochar need study and documentation.
Research is needed on cadaghi’s drought response, particularly at the juvenile stage, for successful plantation and site selection.
Further evaluation of the application of available wastewaters to cadaghi plantations needs to be performed to support its commercialization.
Growth and yield models reflecting genetic and silvicultural improvements are needed.
Expanded markets for cadaghi in Florida may depend on energy project development and technology improvement. The current market for mulchwood is met by existing plantations, but the mulchwood market could expand as cypress availability decreases. Pellet plants, biomass-fueled utility plants, and especially biochar production facilities could significantly increase demand. Improvements in biomass conversion at biorefineries would also increase demand.
Table A.1—Per acre stand and stocking tables for 3- and 4-year-old cadaghi in a 24.5-ha (60.4-acre) plantation near Fort Pierce, Florida
Tree diameter at breast height | Tree height | 3-year-old trees | 4-year-old trees | ||||||
inches | cm | feet | m | Number of trees acre-1 (trees ha-1) | Basal area in square feet acre-1 (m2·ha-1) | Tons ·acre-1 (Mg·ha-1) | Number of trees acre-1 (trees ha-1) | Basal area in square feet acre-1 (m2·ha-1) | Tons ·acre-1 (Mg·ha-1) |
2 | 5.1 | 23 | 7.1 | 21.8 (53.9) | 0.5 (0.11) | 0.1 (0.2) | 13.2 (32.6) | 0.3 (0.07) | 0.1 (0.1) |
3 | 7.6 | 34 | 10.3 | 21.8 (53.9) | 1.1 (0.25) | 0.4 (0.9) | 17.3 (42.7) | 0.8 (0.18) | 0.4 (0.9) |
4 | 10.2 | 44 | 13.3 | 152.5 (376.8) | 13.3 (3.05) | 7.4 (16.6) | 42.2 (104.3) | 3.7 (0.85) | 2.1 (4.6) |
5 | 12.7 | 53 | 16.3 | 261.4 (645.9) | 35.6 (8.17) | 24.4 (54.7) | 123.3 (304.7) | 16.8 (3.86) | 11.5 (25.8) |
6 | 15.2 | 63 | 19.2 | 43.6 (107.7) | 8.6 (1.97) | 6.9 (15.5) | 257.4 (636.0) | 50.5 (11.59) | 41.0 (91.3) |
7 | 17.8 | 72 | 22.1 | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.00) | 0.0 (0.0) | 37.9 (93.7) | 10.1 (2.32) | 9.3 (20.9) |
8 | 20.3 | 82 | 24.9 | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.00) | 0.0 (0.0) | 9.7 (24.0) | 3.4 (0.78) | 3.5 (7.9) |
|
|
| Total | 501.1 (1,238.2) | 59.1 (13.57) | 39.2 (87.9) | 501.1 (1,238.2) | 85.6 (19.65) | 67.9 (152.2) |
Table A.2—Average height, diameter at breast height, and carbon sequestration at age 16 months of rose gum cultivars and cadaghi progenies in two-row windbreaks in rapid infiltration basins 2-3 and 3-2
Parameter | Rose gum cultivars | Cadaghi progenies | ||
Windbreak | 2-3 | 3-2 | 2-3 | 3-2 |
Height in m (feet) | 6.0 (19.7) | 4.9 (16.1) | 5.8 (19.0) | 5.7 (18.7) |
Diameter at breast height in cm (inches) | 8.2 (3.2) | 7.2 (2.8) | 6.4 (2.5) | 6.7 (2.6) |
Sequestration above ground in t·ha-1 (tons·acre-1) | 0.83 (0.37) | 0.51 (0.23) | 0.64 (0.29) | 0.68 (0.30) |
Sequestration below ground in t·ha-1 (tons·acre-1) | 0.09 (0.04) | 0.05 (0.02) | 0.13 (0.06) | 0.14 (0.06) |
Total sequestration in t·ha-1 (tons·acre-1) | 0.92 (0.41) | 0.56 (0.25) | 0.77 (0.34) | 0.82 (0.37) |
Table A.3—Numbers of progenies and trees (n) and mean tree height (H; range among genotypes given for H12), form (F__), and survival (S__ in percent) at 6, 12, and 26 months, respectively, of three cadaghi populations (Australian = ACT, Orchard = OCT, Wild = WCT) in the second-generation base population near Fort Pierce, Florida
Taxon | Number | n | H06 in m (feet) | H12 in m (feet) | H26 in m (feet) | F06 | F12 | F26 | S06 (%) | S12 (%) | S26 (%) |
OCT | 11 | 273 | 1.5 (4.9) | 4.4 (1.9–5.0); 14.4 (6.2–16.4) | -- | 2.7 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 92 | 91 | 90 |
ACT | 25 | 740 | 1.6 (5.3) | 4.8 (4.3–5.7); 15.7 (14.1–18.7) | 10.2 (33.5) | 2.7 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 97 | 97 | 94 |
WCT | 34 | 923 | 1.6 | 4.9 (3.7–5.7); 16.1 (12.1–18.7) | 7.8 (25.6) | 2.7 | 3.1 | 2.8 | 93 | 90 | 88 |
| Average | 1.6 | 4.7; 15.4 | 10.6 (34.8) | 2.8 | 2.8 | 2.9 | 91 | 97 | 82 | |
Table A.4—Numbers of trees and accessions in two cadaghi genetic base populations and derived orchards by generation, name, and year of establishment
Generation | Orchard name | Year established | Base population | Orchard | ||
Trees | Accessions | Trees | Accessions | |||
1 | TO08 | 2008 | 960 | 29 | 69 | 25 |
2 | TO12 | 2012 | 2,040 | 66 | 83 | 47 |
Table A.5—Number of accessions and their mean, maximum, and minimum breeding values1 (%, + or – indicates best, where % indicates positive or negative percentage deviation from the checklot least square mean) for 303 cadaghi accessions for 5 traits
Trait | Number of accessions | Mean | Maximum | Minimum |
Tree basal area (+) | 296 | 1.7 | 12.1 | -10.7 |
Flowering (+) | 155 | 0.1 | 9.9 | -7.4 |
Stem quality (-) | 300 | 3.7 | -11.8 | 26.8 |
Freeze resilience (-) | 194 | -26.8 | -87.6 | 132.2 |
Pest resistance (-) | 69 | 1.8 | -20.1 | 31.3 |
1 For each continuous trait, an analysis by test determined whether there was any heritability for the trait. For those tests with heritability, the data were standardized by the square root of the progeny variance, making the standardized progeny variance equal 1. For binary traits, the data were run using a logit link function. The logit analysis results were then back-transformed into percentages. The gains for all traits were calculated against the overall least square mean performance of the TO08 orchard trees. The general formula for gain calculations in percentage was 100 × [(prediction + population mean) − checklot mean]/checklot mean.
Property | G2 | EH1 | CT | Polchar biochar |
Volatile matter (% of dry weight)a | 83.3 | 85.9 | 85.0 | -- |
Fixed carbon (% of dry weight) | 15.7 | 13.7 | 14.4 | -- |
Ash (% of green weight) | 1.00 | 0.37 | 0.54 | -- |
Moisture content (% of dry weight) | 36.4 | 43.1 | 48.0 | -- |
Carbon (% of dry weight) | 49.2 | 49.8 | 49.7 | -- |
Oxygen (% of dry weight) | 43.0 | 43.1 | 43.1 | -- |
Hydrogen (% of dry weight) | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | -- |
Nitrate-nitrogen (% of dry weight) | 0.21 | 0.17 | 0.17 | -- |
Chloride (% of dry weight) | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.02 | -- |
Sulfate (% of dry weight) | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | -- |
Recalcitrant carbon (%)a | 76.0 | 74.0 | 71.6 | 67.6 |
pH | 10.6 | 10.5 | 10.4 | 8.2 |
Electrical conductivity (mmhos/cm) | 0.57 | 1.56 | 1.76 | 3.33 |
Water holding capacity (mL/100 g) | 75.9 | 79.8 | 78.8 | 43.4 |
Carbonate value (%) | 2.6 | 5.6 | 2.5 | -- |
a Estimated at 80 percent of fixed carbon on a dry ash-free basis.
Table A.7—Basal log specific gravity, moisture content, batch fines, pH, and fiber length of four 15-year-old Florida-grown cadaghi
Tree number | Specific gravity | Moisture content (%) | Fines (%) | Fiber length (mm) |
1 | 0.526 | 80 | 48.6 | 4.17 |
2 | 0.610 | 98 | 52.6 | 4.20 |
3 | 0.555 | 94 | 37.1 | 4.23 |
4 | 0.411 | 131 | 61.5 | 4.21 |
Mean | 0.526 | 101 | 50.0 | 4.20 |
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Staff and collaborators whose contributions made this chapter possible include Gail and Donnie Hilson, Suzanne and Dickie Moss, Jim Phillips, Dan Schultz, Ron Cave, Randy Burton, Peter McClure, Ron Edwards, and Dudley Huber.